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COMPREHENSIVE  GRfMlAR 


OP     THE 


ENGLISH   LANaUAGE. 


FOR     THE     USE     OF     SCHOOLS, 


BY   SIMON  KERL,  A.M. 


"  Pungar  vice  cotis,  acutum 
Beddere  quae  ferrum  valet,  exsors  ipsa  secandi." 


Horace. 


NEW    YORK: 
PHINNEY,   BLAKEMAN,    AND    MASON. 

BUFFALO:  BREED,  BUTLER  &  CO. 
1861. 


C&^,  /vv    t^'.  >2»V^ 


K   E   R   L  '  S 


SERIES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMARS, 


Kerl'§  Primary  Eiig^lish  Orammar. — This  little  book 
is  designed  for  beginners,  and  as  an  introduction  to  the  Comprehensive  Gram- 
mar. Since  variety  in  his  text-books  on  the  same  subject,  always  causes  a  loss 
of  time  and  labor  to  the  learner,  this  little  work,  excepting  the  last  few  pages, 
is  made  identical,  page  for  page,  with  the  first  part  of  the  larger  Grrammar.  It 
is  also  made  in  accordance  with  what  seem  to  be  the  latest  and  best  opinions  on 
the  science  of  grammar  and  the  art  of  teaching.  72  pp.,  12  mo,  well  bound. 
Price  25  cents. 

KerIN  Compretiensive  £iiglish  Orammar. — This  book 
is  designed  to  be  a  thorough  Practical  Grammar,  for  the  use  of  Common  Scliools. 
Nearly  all  that  it  contains  beyond  what  the  generality  of  grammars  have,  will 
be  new  and  useful.  To  its  sections  on  Yebbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions, 
Parsing,  Analysis,  Versification,  Punctuation,  Capital  Letters,  Rhe- 
torical Figures,  and  False  Syntax,  particular  attention  is  directed ;  and  also 
to  the  arrangement  of  matter,  and  to  the  copious  Illustrations  and  Exercises 
360  pp.,  12mo.     Price  75  cents. 

Kerl's  Treatise  on  tlie  Eiiglasli  L<anguage. — This  book 
is  designed  for  the  use  of  High-Schools,  Colleges,  and  Private  Students.  It  will 
embrace,  so  far  as  practicable,  the  History,  Etymology,  Grammar,  and 
Structure  of  the  Language,  with  copious  Illustrations  and  Critical  Re- 
marks, an  Essay  on  Composition,  an  Essay  on  Delivery,  and  a  Collection 
of  Synonyms.     Large  8vo.    {In  Press.) 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1861, 

By  SIMON  KERL, 

In  the  Clerk's  Oflace  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


Stereotyped  by  Smith  &  McDougal,  82  &  84  Beekman-street. 
J.  M.  .Johnson.  Printer  ^nd  Binder,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


PREFACE.  ^^^ 


It  i3  generally  admitted,  at  least  by  those  persons  who  frequently  have  occa- 
sion to  write  the  English  language,  that  the  knowledge  of  this  subject,  obtained 
in  our  schools,  is  not  sufficient  for  the  various  requirements  of  life.  In  the  fol- 
lowing pages  we  therefore  offer  to  the  public  an  English  Grammar  that  is  do- 
signed  to  bo,  for  practical  purposes,  more  thorough  than  any  other  we  have  seen, 
the  very  largest  not  excepted. 

In  its  matter,  it  does  not  differ  much  from  other  grammars,  except  that  it  has 
more,  and  th  it  much  of  it  is  fresh  from  the  original  sources  of  the  science.  What- 
ever others  have  written  on  the  subject,  I  have  endeavored  to  ascertain ;  though 
I  trust  I  have  treated  them  less  piratically  and  censoriously  than  most  of  them 
have  treated  their  predecessors.  The  incidental  remarks  on  grammar,  made  by 
reviewers,  philologists,  and  other  writers,  have  been  diligently  sought  and  con- 
sidered. The  best  grammars  of  foreign  languages  have  also  been  consulted, 
especially  those  of  Becker,  Vivier,  Andrews,  Crosby,  and  Kiihner.  Of  the  exer- 
cises to  be  corrected,  about  one  half  are  the  best  of  those  which  form  the  com- 
mon inheritance  of  the  science;  and  for  the  others  I  have  read  some  work  or 
works  from  every  State  in  the  Union,  in  order  that  the  book  may  show  all  the 
various  kinds  of  errors  which  are  now  current,  like  undetected  counterfeit  money, 
in  the  various  parts  of  our  country.  If  children  imbibed  no  errors  at  home,  it 
were  well  to  exclude  such  exercises  from  grammars :  but  when  a  person  has 
already  caught  a  disease,  I  suppose  it  is  best  to  convince  him  of  his  condition, 
and  show  him  how  to  get  rid  of  it.  Errors  in  spelling,  and  errors  manufactured 
by  grammarians,  are  of  course  objectionable ;  but  errors  that  are  gathered  from 
the  usage  of  good  writers,  are  a  very  different  thing.  Besides,  parsing  and  an- 
alysis, when  used  alone,  become  too  monotonous  and  wearisome,  and  hardly 
suffice  to  teach  the  correct  use  of  the  language. 

In  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  matter, — an  important  item, — I  venture  to 
claim  for  the  book  a  superiority  over  every  other  of  its  kind.  It  is  well  known 
that  science  and  literature  languished,  until  Bacon  and  Shakespeare  emancipated 
them  from  the  thralldom  of  ancient  opinions ;  and,  as  Latin  Grammars  were  first 
made,  and  English  Grammars  modelled  atl;er  them,  the  latter  have  probably  suf- 
fered from  a  similar  dominion.  A  language  that  has  many  inflections,  may  well 
have  its  etymology  taught  as  a  separate  branch ;  but  a  language,  like  ours, 
whose  actual  inflections  might  all  be  printed  on  two  or  three  pages,  needs  no 
such  treatment.  Besides,  words  have  etymology  because  they  have  syntax — the 
very  existence  of  the  one  implying  the  other ;  and  to  stop  with  etymology,  is 
to  leave  the  work  half  finished.  The  greatest  stickler  for  separating  them  in  our 
language,  has  failed  to  draw  the  dividing  line;  and  much  of  the  etymology 
taught  in  our  grammars — as  in  the  cases  of  nouns — is  sheer  syntax.  Every 
teacher  of  experience,  too,  must  have  observed  how  wearisome  to  pupils  is  the 
long  desert  of  etymology,  before  they  see  its  application  in  syntax  ;  and  then 
they  often  do  not  get  the  full  benefit  of  this,  because  they  have  but  a  faint  and 
confused  recollection  of  the  other.  Moreover,  by  the  usual  system,  almost  the 
whole  grammar  must  be  learned  before  any  practical  benefit  is  derived  from  it ; 
and,  as  children  in  many  parts  of  the  country  can  attend  school  only  a  part  of 
each  year,  the  consequence  is,  that  they  begin  their  grammar  from  year  to  year, 
get  tired  of  its  technical  jargon,  and,  finally,  derive  little  benefit  from  the  study. 
13y  the  arrangement  in  this  treatise,  each  section  bears  its  own  fruit,  and  will 
be,  if  learned,  of  permanent  value,  whether  any  further  progress  is  made  or 
not.  The  book,  too,  can  be  more  conveniently  resumed  at  the  beginning  of  any 
section. 


M515998 


IV  PREFACE. 

Parsing  and  Analysis  have  not  only  been  made  full,  but  stripped  of  much 
superfluous  machinery.  Doctrines  and  classifications  have,  in  many  places,  been 
simplified  and  abridged ;  and  for  some  of  tlie  insufficient  articles  in  our  grammars 
have  been  substituted  others  that  are  altogether  more  substantial.  The  book 
comprises  both  a  Primary  and  a  Higher  Grrammar,  and  is,  in  the  highest  sense, 
progressive  and  philosophical.  It  is  built  up  by  a  regular  synthesis  from  the 
alphabet  to  Versification ;  then  follows  the  article  on  Analysis,  which  relates  to 
all  that  precedes  it,  and  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  next  and  last  article, 
namely,  Punctuation.  In  other  grammars,  most  of  the  doctrine  is  printed  in  small 
type,  and  the  exercises  are  printed  in  larger.  This  may  be  more  agreeaV)le  to  the 
teacher,  but  it  is  less  so  to  the  learner.  I  have  given  the  main  principles  first, 
in  large  type,  and  apart  from  the  examples  ;  then  the  exercises  in  type  sufficiently 
large;  and,  lastly,  the  unimportant  doctrine  in  smaller  type,  under  the  head  of. 
Observations,  and  at  the  end  of  each  section.  The  best  modes  of  learning  and 
teaching  have  been  constantly  kept  in  mind ;  but,  of  course,  no  perfectly  sane 
teacher  or  learner  will  imagine,  that  the  grammar  of  a  mighty  language — of  a 
language  that  reaches  into  every  fibre  of  human  knowledge,  can  be  learned  with- 
out labor,  or  in  "six  lessons  1"  A  full  preface,  explanatory  and  defensive,  would 
require  many  pages.  I  therefore  leave  the  work,  without  further  remark,  to  the 
candor,  judgment,  and  research  of  the  reader. 


TO    TEACHERS. 

Since  almost  every  teacher  has  his  own  views  about  teaching,  it  is  probably 
needless  to  add  any  suggestions.  It  may  be  proper,  however,  to  state,  that  the 
pupil  should  learn,  of  the  irregular  verbs,  only  those  forms  which  are  in  good 
present  use,  the  others  having  been  inserted  merely  for  reference.  The  exer- 
cises from  p.  36  to  p.  44,  should  be  used  constantly  with  the  recitations  on  the 
parts  of  speech.  While  the  pupil  is  engaged  in  the  parsing  exercises,  pp.  47 — 57, 
it  may  be  well  for  him  to  strengthen  himself  by  reviewing  several  times  what 
precedes  them.  The  numbers  over  words  show  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  The  in- 
terrogation-points on  the  left  of  paragraphs  in  Part  Second,  are  used  in  stead  of  ■ 
questions.  They  are  a  sort  of  substitute  for  the  pencil-marks  of  teachers.  The 
section  on  the  Derivation  of  Words  may  be  omitted,  if  taught  in  some  other  book. 
For  a  few  of  its  Words,  the  pupil  will  have  to  consult  his  dictionary.  It  would 
be  a  useful  exercise  for  the  pupil  to  copy  the  ^ntences  given  as  examples  in 
Part  Second.  He  would  thus  learn  to  spell,  to  punctuate,  to  use  capital  letters, 
and  would  become  familiar  with  all  the  various  sentences  which  make  language. 
The  exercises  for  correction,  it  is  probably  best  for  the  pupil  to  write  off  cor- 
rected, and  bring  them  to  school  as  a  part  of  his  evening  task.  If  they  be  cor- 
rected orally,  I  would  recommend  that  it  be  not  done  with  too  much  ceremony 
or  mechanical  mannerism.  In  the  sentence,  "  Him  and  me  are  of  the  same  age," 
for  instance,  the  pupil  may  simply  say,  "  Incorrect :  Mm  and  me,  in  the  objective 
case,  should  be  he  and  /,  in  the  nominative  case,  because  '  A  pronoun  used  as 
the  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case.'  "  For  additional 
examples  in  analysis  and  parsing,  may  be  used  the  numerous  examples  from  p. 
257  to  the  end.  The  section  on  Analysis,  though  near  the  end,  should  be  studied 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  reviewed  frequently.  A  Key  to  the  Exercises  will  be 
furnished,  if  it  should  be  found  necessary.  It  was  my  design  to  add  an  article 
on  Composition,  but  as  this  is  not  necessarily  a  part  of  grammar,  and  as  it  would 
have  much  erdarged  the  size  of  the  book,  I  have  omitted  it.  Should  the  present 
work  be  favorably  received,  however,  I  may  add,  as  a  sequel  to  this  book,  a 
small  but  adequate  treatise  on  Composition ;  so  that  the  two  books  will  make  a 
course  of  Grammar,  Rhetoric  and  Composition. 


INDEX. 


wm 


ABBireviations, 317,  321 

Accent,  .     .    62-3 ;  Poetic,     .     .     275-6 

Adjectives, 10,  149-64 

Adjectives,  Principles,  ....  149-56 
Adjectives,  Pronominal,  .  .  .  153-55 
Adjectives,  Exercises,  ....  157-61 
Adjectives,  Observations,   .    .    .    161-4 

Adjuncts, 33,  217-8 

Adverbs, 30-2,  208-17 

Adverbs,  List  of, 31-2 

Adverbs,  Principles, 208-11 

Adverbs,  Exercises, 211-15 

Adverbs,  Observations,  ....  215-17 
Analysis  of  Sentences,    .    .    .     298-314 

Arrangement, 258-9 

Articles, 9,  140-9 

Articles,  Principles, 140-2 

Articles,  Exercises, 142-6 

Articles,  Observations,   ....    147-9 

Articulation, 66 

Brackets, 342 

Cases, 7,  112-9 

Clauses, 3,  298-300 

Colon, 318-21 

Comma, 323-30 

Comparison,  Degrees  of,     .    .  11,  150-3 

Conjugation, 23-9,  187-8 

Conjunctions,  ....  33-5,  230-40 
Conjunctions,  List  of,  ....  34-5 
Conjunctions,  Principles,  .  .  .  230-2 
Conjunctions,  Illustrations,  .  .  232-5 
Conjunctions,  Exercises,  -  .  .  236-9 
Conjunctions,  Observations,    .     .  239^0 

Ourves, 340-2 

Dash, 335-9 

Declension, 8-9 

Derivation  of  "Words,       ....    83-90 

Discourse, 3,  298,  310-11 

Ellipsis, 260 

Emphasis, 66 

Equivalent  Expressions,      .     .     .    258-9 

Etymology, 60 

Exclamation-point, 342-4 

Exercises,  General,  .  .  86-44,  243-50 
Figures,  Ehetorical,  ....  262-71 
Forms  of  the  Verb,    .    .     20,  24-9,  189 

Genders, 5-6,  101-4 

Grammar, 59 

Hyphen, 343-5 

Infinitives,     ...     12,  21-2,  165,  182-6 

Interjections, 35-6,  240-2 

Interrogation-point, 231-2 

Letters,  .  60-2 ;  Capital,  .  .  .  67-77 
Marks,  Miscellaneous,  ....  351-4 
Moods,  ....  17-8,  168-71,  175-6 
Nouns, 4,  91-140 


PAGE 

Nouns,  Principles, 91-118 

Nouns,  Exercises, 119-33 

Nouns,  Observations,  ....  134-40 
Numbers,  6,  105-12  ;  of  Verbs,  177-80 
Observations,  General,    ....      25-7 

Orthography, 60,  67-83 

Parsing, 47-57 

Participles,    ...     12,  21-2,  165,  182-6 

Parts  of  Speech, 2,90 

u     u      u      Words  of  Different,  242-3 
Pauses,      .     .     67 ;  Poetic,      ...  274 

Period, 316-18 

Persons,    6, 104-5  ;  of  Verbs,  .      177-80 

Phrase, 3,  311 

Pleonasm, 260-1 

Poetry, 272,  296 

Predicates, 2-3,  300 

Prefixes, 84-6 

Prepositions, 32-3,  217-30 

Prepositions,  Principles,  .  .  .  217-8 
Prepositions,  Illustrations,  .  .  219-23 
Prepositions,  Constructions,  .  .  223-6 
Prepositions,  Exercises,  .  .  .  226-9 
Prepositions,  Observations,    .     .  229-30 

Pronouns, 4r-5,  94-140 

Pronouns,  Principles,     ....  94-119 

Pronouns,  Exercises 119-33 

Pronouns,  Observations,     .     .     .  134-40 

Pronunciation, 60-6 

Propositions, 3,  298-313 

Prosody, 60 

Punctuation, 315-54 

Quantity, 275 

Quotation-marks,       346-7 

Rhetorical  Devices, 258-62 

Roots  of  Words, 83-9 

Scanning, 279-96 

Semicolon, 321-23 

Sentences, 3,  298-313 

Spelling,       78-83 

Subiects, 2-3,  300 

Suflixes, 87-90 

Syllables,       77-8 

Svntax,      .    .  60  ;  Rules  of,     .     .      44-7 

Tenses, 18-9,  171-6 

Tones, 66 

Underscore, 347-8 

Verbs, 12-30,  164-208 

Verbs,  Auxiliary,  ....  22-3,  180-2 
Verbs,  Irregular,  List  of,     .     .     .    13-16 

Verbs,  Principles, 164-88 

Verbs,  Exercises, 189-204 

Verbs,  Observations,       ....    204^8 

Versification, 272-98 

Voices, 167-8 

Words,     .     .     • 1-2 


For  any  thing  not  found  among  the  general  principles,  see  the  Observations 
at  the  end  of  the  section. 


SII«MIS  m  PMT  flMT, 


1.  Ifiitrodiietory  View,  or  a  synthetic  outline. — Letters, 
syllables,  words,  subjects,  predicates,  phrases,  propositions,  clauses, 
sentences,  discourse. 

2.  JVoiiiiK  and  ProiBOims. — Classes  :  nouns, — proper  and 
common  ;  pronouns, — personal,  relative,  and  interrogative.  Proper- 
ties :  genders, — masculine,  feminine,  common,  and  neuter ;  persons, — 
first,  second,  and  third ;  numbers, — singular  and  plural ;  cases, — 
nominative,  possessive,  and  objective.     Declension.     Exercises. 

3.  Articles. — Kinds  ;  definite  and  indefinite.  How  a  and  an 
should  be  used. 

4.  Adjectives. — Classes:  descriptive  and  definitive;  definitive, 
with  sub-classes.  Degrees  of  comparison ;  positive,  comparative, 
superlative.     List  of  adjectives  irregularly  compared. 

5.  Verbs. — Classes:  verbs  finite,  participles,  infinitives,  regular 
verbs,  irregular  verbs,  list  of  irregulai-  verbs  ;  transitive  or  passive, 
intransitive  or  neuter.  Properties  :  voices, — active,  passive  ;  moods, 
— indicative,  subjunctive,  potential,  imperative,  infinitive;  tenses, — 
present,  past,  future,  perfect,  plupei-fect,  future-perfect,  \i\\h.  forms — 
common,  emphatic,  progressive,  passive  ;  persons  and  numbers.  Par- 
ticiples and  infinitives.     Auxiliary  verbs.     Conjugation.     Exercises. 

6.  Adverbs.— Their  chief  characteristics.  Full  list  carefully 
classified. 

7.  Prepositions. — Their  chief  characteristics.  Adjuncts. 
List  of  prepositions. 

§.  Coaajuaietions. — Classes;  coordinate,  subordinate,  corres- 
ponding.    List  of  conjunctions  classified  according  to  their  meanings. 

9.  Iiftterjections. — List,  classified  according  to  the  emotions. 

10.  Exercises  on  all  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

11.  Rules  of  Syntax. — The  relations  of  words  to  one  another 
in  the  construction  of  sentences. 

12.  Parsing. — Formulas,  models,  and  examples. 


PART   FIRST. 


1.   INTRODUCTORY  VIEW. 

"What  is  a  letter  f 

A  letter  is  a  character  that  denotes  one  or  more  of  the 
elementary  sounds  of  language. 

Examples  :  A,  b,  c ;  a  ge,  «  t,  a  rt,  a  11 ;  IniUe ;  cent,  cart. 

a®"  Always  read  the  examples  carefully,  reflecting  upon  each,  so  that  jon  may  learn  clearly  and 
fully  what  is  meant  by  the  definition  or  description- 
How  many  elementary  sounds  has  our  language,  and  how  many  letters  to  represent  them  ? 

About  forty  elementary  sounds,  and  twenty-six  letters  to 
represent  them. 

Into  what  two  classes  are  the  letters  divided  ? 

Into  vowels  and  consonants. 

Which  are  the  vowele  ? 

A,  e,  i,  0,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 

What  is  a  syllable  f 

A  syllable  is  a  letter,  or  two  or  more  combined,  pro- 
nounced as  one  unbroken  sound. 

Ex. — A,  I,  on,  no,  not,  stretched,  barb'dst,  a-e-ri-al,  pro-fa-sion. 
What  is  a  word  t 

A  word  is  a  syllable,  or  two  or  more  combined,  used  as 
the  sign  of  some  idea. 

Ex. — Man,  tree,  world,  sky,  pink,  beauty,  strikes,  well,  fair,  alas,  because. 

An  idea  is  the  picture  or  notion  of  a  thing,  in  the  mind. 

How  are  words  classified  according  to  the  number  of  syllables  composing  them  ? 

Into  monosyllables,  dissyllables,  trisyllables,  and  polysyl- 
lables. 

Define  these  classes. 

A  monosyllable  is  a  word  of  one  syllable  ;  a  dissyllable, 
of  two  ;  a  trisyllable,  of  three  ;  and  a  polysyllable,  of  four 
or  more. 

Ex. — I,  song ;  baker,  railroad ;  ornament,  commandment ;  cnstomary,  incom- 
prehensibility. 

How  are  words  classified  according  as  they  are  formed,  or  not  formed,  from  one  another  t 

Into  primitive,  derivative,  and  compound. 


2  INTEODUCTOEY     VIEW. 

Define  these  classes. 

A  primitive  word  is  not  formed  from  another  ;  a  deriva- 
tive word  is  formed  from  another  ;  and  a  compound  word  is 
composed  of  two  or  more  others. 

Ex. — Frimitiv  e:  Breeze,  man,  good,  build,  up.  Derivativ  e  :  Breezy, 
manful,  goodness,  builder,  rebuild.  Vo  7np oun  d:  Sea-breeze,  mankind,  dew- 
drop,  newspaper,  upon,  sewing-machine. 

How  are  words  divided  according  to  what  they  denote  ?  ■' 

Into  nine  classes,  called  parts  of  speech. 

Name  them. 

Nouns,  Pronouns  J  Articles,  Adjectives,  Verbs,  Adverbs, 
Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. 

Familiar  Explanation. — ^I  might  present  to  your  mind,  by  vrords  alone,  aL 
that  I  have  ever  seen  or  experienced.  To  do  this,  I  would  have  to  use  nouna  and 
pronouns,  to  denote  objects ;  articles,  to  aid  the  nouns ;  adjectives,  to  express  the 
qualities,  conditions,  or  circumstances  of  objects ;  verbs,  to  express  their  actions, 
or  states  of  existence  ;  adverbs,  to  describe  their  actions,  or  to  show  the  nature  or 
degree  of  their  qualities  ;  prepositions,  to  express  their  positions  or  relations  to  one 
another ;  conjunctions,  to  continue  the  discourse,  or  to  connect  its  parts ;  and  inter- 
jections, to  give  vent  to  any  feeling  or  emotion  springing  up  suddenly  within  me. 

Ex. — Nouns:  "In  spring,  the  sun  shines  pleasantly  upon  the  earth,  leaves 
and  Jiowers  come  forth,  and  birds  sing  in  the  woods^ 

Fronouns:  "  Koses  encircle  mj,  window,  and  ^^^^7'' Sm^^^ '^'"?.'''^''' 
Articles :  "  The  church  stands  on  a  hill." 

Adjectives:  "  Jiipe  strawberries  are  good.''"'    "  That  man  owns  two  farms." 
Verbs  :  "Rivers  jlow,  stars  shine,  men  worJc,  and  boys  study  and^toy." 
Adverbs:  "  Below  us,  a  most  beautiful  river  flowed  very  smoothly.'''' 
Fr  epositions:  "  There  are  cedars  on  the  hill  beyond  the  river." 
Conjunctions:  "  John  and  James  are  happy ,  because  they  are  good." 
Interjections:  "We  all  seek  for  happiness;  but,  alas!  how  few  of  us 
obtain  it." 

Suggestion  to  the  Teachee. — Take  a  walk  with  your  class,  during  some  leis- 
ure interval,  and  teach  them  the  parts  of  speech,  from  the  surrounding  scenery. 


Since  the  world  furnishes  thousands  and  thousands  of  objects  for  us  to  consider,  or  think 
about,  and  since  we  never  speak  without  having  something  in  mind,  what  is  essential  to  every 
thought  or  saying  ? 

A  Subject  and  a  Predicate. 

What  is  meant  by  the  stibject  t 

The  siaSljjcct  denotes  that  of  which  something  is  said  or 
affirmed. 

Ex. — "  The  cannons         were  fired."    "  The  leaves  and  jiowers  in  the  garden 
have  been  killed  by  the  frost." 
What  is  meant  by  the  predicate  f 

The  predicate  denotes  what  is  said  or  affirmed. 

Ex. — "The  cannons  were  jiredy     "The  leaves  and  flowers  in  the  garden 

have  been  killed  hy  thefrost.'''' 

How  are  subjects  and  predicates  classified  ? 

Into  simple  and  compound. 


INTRODUCTORY   VIEW.  8 

Define  simple  subjects  and  compound  subjects. 

A  simple  subject  has  but  one  nominative  to  which  the 
predicate  refers ;  a  compound  subject  has  more  than  one. 

Ex, — Simple:  '■'■  T7iehoy  learns;"   '•'' TJie  hoy  wTio  is  studious,  learns." 

Compound:  '■'■lice  hoy  and  his  sister  learn."     '■*■  Jlie  boys  and  girls  who 

are  studious,  learn." 

Define  simple  predicates  and  compound  predicates. 

A  simple  predicate  has  but  one  finite  verb  referring  to  the 
subject ;  a  compound  predicate  has  more  than  one. 

Ex. — »S^imj3Z<?;  "  Boys  study  f      "Boys  study    the    lessans    which 

iire  given  to  themy        Compound:    "Boys  study,   recite,  and  play  f 

"  Boys  study  and  recite  the  lessons  which  are  given  to  them:'''' 

Sibject,  from  siJijectus,  thrown  under,  because  viewed  ns  being  tbe  foundation  on  wbicb  the  propo- 
sition or  sentence  is  based.    Predioate,  from  prcedico,  1  speak  or  say. 

What  is  a  lyhrase  t 

A  phra»$e  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together,  but 
not  making  a  proposition. 

Ex. — "  In  the  next  place."     "  To  show  you  the  fragrant  blossoms  of  spring." 
What  is  a  proposition  T 

A  propoi^iiion  is  a  subject  combined  with  its  predi- 
cate. 

Ex.—"  Stars  shine."     "  Even  if  ray  hopes  should  perish." 

A  proposition  may  be  a  clause,  or  not ;  or  it  may  be  a  sentence,  or  1§S8  than  a  scntouce.  It  is  not 
necessarily  either  a  clause  or  a  sentence. 

What  is  a  clause  t 

A  clause  is  any  one  of  two  or  more  propositions  which 
together  make  a  sentence. 

Ex. — "The  morning  was  pure  and  sunny,  the  fields  were  white  with  daisies, 
the  hawthorn  was  covered  with  its  fragrant  blossoms,  the  bee  hummed  about  every 
bank,  and  the  swallow  played  high  in  air  about  the  village  steeple." — Irving.  This 
sentence  has  five  clauses,  separated  by  the  comma. 

What  is  a  sentence  t 

A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  by  words. 

Ex. — "Everyman  is  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune."  "Happy  is  he  who 
finds  a  true  friend,  and  happy  is  he  who  possesses  the  true  qualities  to  be  a  friend." 

How  are  sentences  classified  ? 

Into  Simple  and  compound. 

What  is  a  simple  sentence  ? 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  proposition. 

Ex. — "Wasps  sting."  "  No  man  knows  his  destiny."  "  Eeturn  (thou)  quickly.*' 
What  Ls  a  compound  sentence  ? 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  clauses. 

Ex. — "  As  every  thread  of  gold  is  precious,  so  is  every  moment  of  time ;  and  as 
it  would  be  folly  to  shoe  horse.-*  (as  Nero  did)  with  gold,  so  it  is  to  spend  time  in 

triiics." — Mason. 

Wliat  is  discourse  f 

Uiscoiirse  is  any  series  of  properly  related  sentences, 
expressing  continuous  thought.       See  your  Reader. 


4  NOUNS   AND    PRONOUNS. 

2.  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

What  is  a  Tioun  ? 

A  iioaiii  is  a  name. 

Examples  :  God,  Mary,  man,  men,  George  Washington,  instructor,  sky,  snn, 
Btars,  clouds,  town,  St.  Louis,  street,  flock,  flower,  soul,  feeling,  sense,  motion, 
behavior. 

Names  are  given  to  persons  or  other  spiritual  beings,  to  brute  animals,  and  to 
things.     The  word  olyects  may  be  used  as  a  general  term  for  all  these  classes. 

Tell  me  which  are  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences  ;— 

Lions  and  ostriches  are  found  in  Africa. 

John  and  Joseph  drove  the  horses  to  the  pasture. 

Pinks  and  roses  are  blooming  in  the  garden. 

Care,  sorrow,  and  disco  itent,  destroy  happiness. 

Apples,  peaches,  melons,  corn,  and  potatoes,  are  brought  to  market. 

"What  is  a.  proper  noun  ? 

A  proper  noun  is  an  individual  name. 

Ex.— George,  Solomon,  Susan,  William  Shakespeare,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Lon- 
don, New  YorK,  Niagara,  Mississippi,  the  Andrew  Fulton,  Monday,  January. 

What  is  a  covimon  noun  ? 

A  comition  noun  is  a  generic  name. 

Ex. — Boy,  girl,  tree,  house,  river,  city,  town,  road,  path,  bucket,  horse,  cow, 
hog,  chair,  wagon,  book,  pen,  boat,  ink,  bird,  blackbird. 

Generic  means  belongmg  to  a  class  ;  and  individual,^  belonging  to  one  object  or 
group  only,  as  distinguished  from  others  of  the  same  kind,  AH  the  objects  in  the 
world  may  be  divided  into  a  limited  number  of  classes;  as,  rivers,  valleys,  hills, 
cities,  leaves,  flowers.  A  few  of  these  classes — namely,  persons,  places,  months, 
days,  ships,  boats,  horses,  oxen,  rivers,  mountains,  and  some  others — are  of  so 
much  importance  to  us  in  our  daily  affairs,  that  we  have  an  extra  name  for  each 
object  of  tlie  class  ;  as,  Thomas,  Smith,  Ckicago,  Missauri.  The  names  of  the  former 
kind  are  common  nouns  ;  those  of  the  latter,  proper  nouns.  A  proper  noun  begins 
with  a  capital  letter. 

How  many  kinds  of  nouns  are  there,  and  what  are  they  t 

Wliat  is  a  pronoun  f 

A  proiiouai  is  a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun. 

Ex. — "  William  promised  Mary  that  William  would  lend  Mary  William's 
grammar,  that  Mary  might  study  the  grammar,"  is  expressed  with  greater  ficility 
and  more  agreeably,  by  saying,  "  William  promised  Mary  that  he  would  lend  her 
Jds  grammar,  that  she  might  study  it. 

Pro  means  for,  or  in  stead  of;  hence  ^onoun  means  for  a  nown.  The  word  substantive 
is  often  used  as  a  general  term  to  denote  either  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  or  whatever  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  a  noun. 

What  is  a  personal  pronoun  ? 

4-  personal  pronoun  is  one  of  a  class  of  pronouns  whose 
ghief  use  is,  to  distinguish  the  different  persons. 

Ex. — "  /told  you  he  was  not  at  home."     "  We  told  him  you  were  not  at  home." 

Persom,  in  grammar,  are  properties  of  words  to  distinguish  the  speaker,  what  is  spoken  to,  and 
lyliat  is  spoken  of,  from  one  another. 

Wliich  are  the  personal  pronouns  ? 

7,  my,  mine,  myself,  me;  we,  our,  ours,  {our self,)  ourselves, 
Us;—^thou,  thy,  thine,  thyself,  thee;  you,  ye,  your,  yours, 
yourself,  yourselves; — he,  his,  him,  himself;  she,  her,  hers, 
herself;  it,  its,  itself;  they,  their,  theirs,  them,  and  themselves- 


NOUNS    AND   PRONOUNS.  O 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ? 

A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  makes  its  clause  depend- 
ent on  another  clause. 

Ex. — "There  is  the  man  whom  you  saw;"  "From  the  side  of  a  mountain 
gushed  forth  a  little  rivulet,  which  lay,  like  a  silver  thread,  across  the  meadow."  "  I 
do  not  know  who  took  your  hat"  :  "  No  one  knows  what  ails  the  child."  Observe 
that  tlie  Italic  words  with  what  lollows  each,  can  make  sense  only  in  connection 
with  the  other  words,  and  hence  they  are  said  to  be  dependent. 

Which  are  the  relative  pronouns  ? 

Who,  whoever,  whosoever;  whose,  whosever,  whosesoever; 
whom,  whomever,  whomsoever;  which,  whichever,  whichso- 
ever; what,  whatever,  whatsoe'der;  that;  and  as. 

Whoso  and  whatso  are  sometimes  found  as  shortened  forms  of  whosoever  and 
whatsoever. 

What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun  ? 

An  interrog^ative  pronoun  is  one  used  to  ask  a  ques- 
tion. 

Ex.—"  Who  took  my  hat  ?"    "  Which  is  yours  ?"    "  What  ails  the  child  ?" 
Which  are  the  interrogative  pronouns  ? 

Who,  whose,  whom;  lohich;  and  what. 

What  other  words  are  frequently  used  as  pronouns  ? 

One,  ones,  oneself,  none;  other,  others;  that,  those;  each 
other,  one  another. 

Which  of  the  foregoing  pronouns  are  oompownd,  or  what  is  a  compound  pronoun  ? 

A  compound  pronoun  is  a  simple  pronoun  with  self, 
selves,  ever,  so,  or  soever,  annexed  to  it ;  or  it  is  a  pronoun 
consisting  of  two  words. 

Ex. — My,  myself;  your,  yourself;  them,  themselves  ;  who,  whoever  ;  each  other. 
How  many  chief  kinds  0/ pronouns  are  there,  and  what  are  theyt 
What  properties  have  nouns  and  pronouns  f 

€render§,  persons,  numbers,  and  eases. 

Just  as  every  apple,  for  instance,  must  be  of  soma  size,  hava  some  kind  of  color,  have  some  kind 
of  flavor,  be  hard  or  mellow,  &c. 


a.  The  pupil  should  constantly  bear  in  mind,  that  language  is  made  to  suit  the 
world,  and  not  the  world  to  suit  language.  The  properties  of  words  arise  generally 
from  the  nature  or  relations  of  objects. 

We  can  readily  observe  that  the  objects  around  us  are  either  males,  females,  or 
neither ;  and  to  enable  us  to  be  sufficiently  definite  in  these  respects,  words  have 
what  grammarians  call  genders. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  masculine  gender,  or  what  does  the  masculine  gender 
denote  ? 

The  masculine  gender  denotes  males. 

Ex. — Man,  Charles,  brother,  horse,  ox,  drake,  instructor,  he,  his,  him. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  feminine  gender,  or  what  does  the  feminine  gender 
tlenote  ? 

The  feminine  gender  denotes  females. 

Ex. — Woman,  Susan,  nifice,  cow,  duck,  instructress,  she,  her. 


6  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  common  gender,  or  -what  does  this  gender  denote  ? 

The  coiiiSiiOBA  gender  denotes  either  males  or  females, 
or  both. 

Ex. — Parent,  child,  friend,  cousin,  people,  bird,  animal,  I,  we,  our,  your,  who. 

Common  means  applicable  to  either  sex :  Tieuter  means  applicable  to  neither  sex. 

"When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  neuter  gender,  or  what  does  the  neuter  gender  denoi:e  ? 

The  neaiter  gender  denotes  neither  males  nor  females. 

Ex. — Book,  rock,  rose,  wisdom,  vice,  cloud,  happiness,  it,  what. 
How  many  genders  are  there,  and  wliat  are  they  f 


W»  In  speaking,  we  may  refer  either  to  ourselves,  to  something  spoken  to,  or 
to  something  spoken  of,  and  there  are  no  other  ways  of  speaking ;  hence  words 
have  what  grammarians  cali persons. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  first  person,  or  what  does  the  first  person  denote  ? 

The  fir§t  person  denotes  the  speaker. 

Ex. — "/  Andrew  Jackson,  President  of  the  United  States."  '-^  I  Paul  have 
written  it."     "  We,  Xho,  people  of  these  colonies." 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  seeoiid  person,  or  what  does  the  second  person  denote  f 

The  second  person  represents  an  object  as  spoken  to. 

Ex. — "  Thomas,  come  to  me."  "  GenMemen  of  the  jury."  "  O  Happiness  !  our 
being's  end  and  aim."     "  Tlioa,  tliou,  art  the  man."     "  Wave  your  tops,  ye  pines,'''* 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoxm  of  the  third  person,  or  Arhat  does  the  third,  person  denote  ? 

The  third  person  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of. 

Ex. — "  Experience  and  hope,  pleasure  and  pain,  Ufe  and  death,  money  and  power, 
have  a  mighty  influence  on  the  actions  of  mankind."  "  He  knew  it  was  what  she 
wanted  hirn  to  buy." 

How  many  persons  are  there,  and  what  are  they  f 


C.  There  are  more  than  one  of  almost  every  kind  of  objects ;  and  in  speakin<* 
we  are  continually  referring  either  to  one  object  or  to  more,  of  the  different  kinds 
with  which  we  have  to  do  ;  hence  words  have  what  grammarians  call  numbers. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  singular  number,  or  what  does  the  singular  number 
denote  ? 

The  singular  number  denotes  but  one. 

Ex. — Desk,  key,  leaf,  boy,  Arthur,  deer,  sheep,  swarm,  armv,  I,  my,  me,  thou, 
thee,  thyself,  yourself,  he,  him,  she,  her,  it,  itself. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  plural  number,  or  what  does  the  plural  number  denote? 

The  plural  number  denotes  more  than  one. 

Ex. — Desks,  keys,  leaves,  boys,  deer,  sheep,  ashes,  swarms,  armies,  we,  our, 
us,  ye,  they,  them. 

How  is  the  plural  number  of  nouns  generally  formed  ? 

By  adding  s,  sometimes  es,  to  the  singular. 

Ex. — Glove,  (/loves;  chair,  chairs ;  church,  churches;  busli,  hushes ;  ^ox, foxes; 
chimney,  chimneys;  negro,  negroes;  nation,  nations. 

What  is  a  collective  noun  ? 

A  collective  noun  is  a  noun  denoting,  in  the  singular 
form,  more  than  one  object  of  the  same  kind. 

Ex. — Family,  army,  swarm,  crowd,  multitude,  congregation,  pair,  tribe,  class. 
How  many  numbers  are  there,  and  what  are  tliey  f 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  7 

CI.  If  I  say,  **  Your  brother's  friend  sent  James  to  me ; 

Your  friend's  brotlier  sent  me  to  James ; 

My  brotlaer's  friend  sent  James  to  you  ; 

James  sent  your  brother's  friend  to  me ; 

I  sent  your  friend's  brother  to  James  ; 

You  sent  James  to  my  friend's  brother;"  you  can  easily  see  that 
lUl  these  sentences  differ  much  from  one  another  in  meaning.  The  difference  of 
meaning  arises  from  the  different  relations  of  the  words  to  one  another,  and  these 
different  relations  are  called  cases.  That  objects  exist  or  act,  that  objects  are  owned, 
or  make  parts  of  other  objects,  and  that  objects  are  acted  upon,  are  the  three  chiet 
conditions  of  things,  on  which  cases  are  founded. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nominative  case,  or  what  does  the  nominative  case 
denote  ? 

1.  The  nominative  case  is  the  case  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun to  which  a  predicate  directly  refers. 

Ex. — ^^  John  strikes  James."     '■'•Joseph  swims."     "  Tiie,;?^^  is 

ploughed."     "  Tlie  rose  is  beautiful."     "  Fishes  swim  in  the  sea,  and 

hirds  fly  in  the  air."     "  Mary's  bunch  of  flowers  is  fading." 

2.  The  nominative  case  is  the  case  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun used  independently  or  absolutely. 

Ex. — Independently :  ^^ John,  come  to  me;^^  ^^  Aim,  foor  Torick P^  "The 
Pilgrim  Fathers, — where  are  they?"  "Merchant's  Bank^  Absolutely: 
"The  tree  having  fallen,  we  returned;"  '■''Bonaparte  being  banished,  peace  was 
restored;  "  To  become  a  scholar^  requires  exertion." 

Independently ;  used  in  addressing  persons  or  other  objects,  in  exclaiming,  or  in  simply  directing 
attention  to  an  object.  Absolutely  ;  used  before  a  participle,  or  after  a  participle  or  an  infinitive,  witU- 
ont  being  governed  by  it  or  controlled  by  any  other  word. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  or  what  does  the  possessive  case 
denote? 

The  possessive  case  denotes  possession. 

Ex.— ^'John's  horse  ;"  "  My  slate  ;"  "  The  children's  books  ;"  "  The  ffirls' 
room." 

What  is  the  regular  sign  of  the  possessive  case  ? 

An  apostrophe,  or  comma  above  the  line,  followed  by 
the  letter  s. 

Ex.—^^Marfs  slate;"  ^^  Burns' s  poems;"  "The  soldier's  grave;"  ^^ Men's 
affairs." 

Is  the  possessive  s  always  expressed  ? 

It  is  omitted  from  plural  nouns  ending  with  s,  and  some- 
times also  from  singular  nouns  ending  with  s,  or  an  s-sound. 

Ex. — "  The  pigeons'  roosting-place ;"  "  The  soldiers'  camp ;"  "  For  conscience' 
sake." 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  or  what  does  the  objective  case 
denote  ? 

The  objective  case  is  the  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition. 

Ex. — "The  horse  eato  hay ;"  "This  stream  turns  a  mill''  "The  water  flows 
OVER  the  damf  "I  saw  her  wrrn  him;"  "He  saw  me  with  her." 

The  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  required  after  it  to  make  sense  ;  ag, 
"I  rolled  a  stone  down  the  Mil."  Here  slone  is  the  object  of  the  verb  rolled,  and  MU  is  the  object 
of  the  preposition  down. 

How  mantf  cases  are  there,  and  what  are  they  T 


NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS. 


When  must  a  noun  or  pronoun  agree  in  case  with  another  noun  or  pi-onoun? 

When  it  is  but  a  repetition  of  the  other,  or  when  it  de- 
notes, by  way  of  explanation,  the  same  thing. 

Ex. — "  I,  /,  am  the  man.''''  "  Friends,  ii\\?.&  friends,  have  ruined  me."  "Smith 
is  a  barber.''''     "  Smith  the  barber  is  my  neighbor.'''' 

How  can  the  different  cases  of  nouns  be  distinguished  ? 

By  their  meanings  :  or,  the  nominative  may  be  found 
by  asking  a  question  with  who  or  what  before  the  verb  ;  the 
objective,  with  ivhom  or  ivhat  after  the  verb  ;  and  the  pos- 
sessive is  known  by  the  apostrophe. 

Ex. — "Mary  plucked  flowers  for  John's  sister."  Who  jilucked? — plucked 
what  ? — ^for  whom? 


C.  Having  now  shown  you  what  properties  nouns  and  pronouns  have,  I  shall 
next  show  you,  briefly  and  regularly,  how  the  different  nouns  and  pronouns  are 
written  to  express  these  properties.    This  process  is  called  declension. 

What,  then,  is  it,  to  decline  a  noun  or  pronoun  ? 

To  decline  a  noun  or  pronoun,  is  to  show,  in  some  regu- 
lar way,  what  forms  it  has  to  express  its  grammatical  prop- 
erties. 

Observe  that  nouns  sometimes  remain  unchanged,  and  that  pronouns  are  sometimes  wholly 
changed,  to  express  their  properties. 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 
Nouns. 


SlNGUIxA.K. 

PLrBAX. 

Ifommathe.       Possessive.       Objective. 

Mominative.       Possessive.       Objective, 

Boy, 

boy's,            boy ; 

boys. 

boys',            boys. 

Man, 

man's,           man ; 

men, 

men's,           men. 

Lady, 

lady's,           lady; 

ladies, 

ladies',          ladies. 

Fox, 

fox's,             fox ; 

foxes, 

foxes',           foxes. 

John, 

John's,         John. 

Pronouns. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Mm.               Poss. 

Obj. 

Mmt.              Poss.          Obj, 

1st  Pees. 

I,           my  or  mine. 

me; 

we,           our  07'  ours,      us. 

2u  Pees. 

_,                   thy  or  thine,    )   , 
Thou..you,y^^^^y^^^Jthee 

s or  you; 

ye  or  you,  your  or  yours,  you. 

Mas.    He,            his, 

him;  \ 

SdPebs. 

Fern.   She,        her  or  hers, 

her;     ■ 

they,  their  or  theirs,    thein, 

,  Mut.  It,                its, 

it;     ) 

Mm.  or  ObJ. 

M/m.  or  Obj. 

1. 

Myself  (or  ourself) ; 

ourselves. 

2. 

Thyself  or  yourself; 

yourselves. 

8. 

Himself,  herself,  itself; 

themselves. 

M)m.           Poss.           Ohj. 

Mm. 

Poss.           Obj. 

One,           one's,          one ; 

ones, 

ones',         ones. 

Other,         other's,       other ; 

others, 

others',       others. 

Sing,  or  Plur.  ■ 


ARTICLES. 

Mm.  Poss.                  Obj. 

'■  Who,  whose,  whom.    ( — ever  or  soever.) 

Which,  whose,  which.                   " 

That,  whose,  that.                  

What,  what.  " 

As,  as. 

,  None,  none. 


Decline  John^  man,  toy,  lady,  fox,  farmer,  Benjamin,  city. 
Decline  /.  thou,  you,  Tie,  she,  it,  myself,  thyself,  yourself,  himself,  herself,  itself^ 
one,  oth&r,  who,  whoever,  whosoever,  which,  what,  that,  as,  none. 

Tell  me  the  gender  of  each  of  the  following  words,  and  why : — 
Theodore,  Theodora,  he,  hers,  she,  I,  they,  it,  who,  which,  what. 
Tell  me  the  person  of  each  of  the  following  pronouns,  and  why : — 
i,  we,  my,  myself,  thou,  thyself,  she,  he,  it,  its,  himself,  one,  other,  that,  who. 
Tell  Trie  the  number  of  each  of  the  following  pronouns,  and  why : — 
I,  you,  he,  me,  we,  my,  us,  thee,  yourselves,  them,  herself,  themselves,  it,  she, 
hers,  which,  what,  others. 

Tell  me  the  case  of  each  of  the  following  pronouns : — 
I,  me,  we,  us,  thou,  thee,  thyself,  they,  them,  who,  whom. 
Of  what  gendc/;  person,  number,  and  case  is  each  of  the  following  pronouns  t — 
Him,  his,  its,  he,  them,  it,  I,  you,  thy,  their,  she,  thou,  me,  your,  us,  they,  my, 
mine,  thine,  yours,  it,  hers,  theirs,  we,  thee,  our,  ours,  ye,  them,  myself,  ourself, 
tuemselves,  ourselves,  thyself,  vourselves,  yourself,  himself,  itself,  herself,  one, 
iiune,  one's,  ones',  other,  others^,  who,  what,  which,  whatever. 

3.   ARTICLES. 

If  I  say,  "  Give  me  a  book,"  you  understand  that  any  book  will  answer  my 
purpose  ;  but  if  I  say,  "  Give  me  the  book."  you  understand  that  I  want  some  par- 
ticular book.  If  I  say,  '*  Missouri  is  nortu  of  Arkansas,"  I  mean  States  ;  but  if  I 
say,  "  2'he  Missouri  is  north  of  the  Arkansas,"  I  mean  rivers.  These  little  words. 
a  and  the,  which  often  have  so  important  an  effect  on  the  sense  of  nouns,  are  called 
urticles. 

What,  then,  is  an  article  t 

An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  a  noun  to  show  how 
it  is  applied. 

Ex. — "Man  is  made  for  society;  but  a  man  naturally  prefers  ^Ae  man  whose 
temper  and  inclinations  best  suit  his  own." 

How  many  articles  are  there,  and  what  are  they  ? 

Two:  the,  the  definite  article;  and  a  or  an,  ih.Q  indef- 
inite article. 

What  does  the  definite  article  show? 

The  deHnite  article  shows  that  some  particular  object 
or  objects  are  meant. 

Ex. — '■'•The  horse,  the  horses,  the  stage,  the  Connecticut,  the  lion;  the  green 
meadows  ;  the  iron-bound  bucket;  the  brave  Pulaski." 

What  does  the  indefinite  article  show  ? 

The  indeHnite  article  shows  that  no  particular  one  of 
the  kind  is  meant. 

Ex. — '■'■A  bkd,  a  mouse,  an  apple,  a  cherry,  a  carriage  ;  an  idle  boy." 


1 6  ADJECTIVES. 

Ho\»-  do  a  and  an  diflTer  ? 

In  application  only  ;  in  meaning,  they  are  tlie  same. 

Where  is  an  used  ? 

Before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound. 

Ex. — '■'■An  article,  an  enemy,  an  in,ch,  an  urn,  o/ii  hour;  an  honest  man." 
Where  is  a  used  ? 

Before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant  sound. 

Ex. — "^  banquet,  a  cucumber,  a  dunce,  a  fox,  a  horse,  a  jug,  a  king,  a  lion,  a 
youth,  a  university,  a  eulogy ;  a  one-horse  carriage." 

Place  the  proper  indefinite  article  be/ore  each  of  the  following  icords  or  phrases:^ 
Eazor,  house,  knife,  humming-bird,  chicken,  ounce,  insult,  unit,  ox,  ball,  hun- 
dred, African  ;  interesting  story ;  humble  cottage. 

4.  ADJECTIVES. 

The  nouns  and  pronouns,  as  you  remember,  denote  objects.  But  our  regard 
for  objects  depends  not  a  little  on  their  qualities  and  circmnstances ;  and  hence 
there  is  a  large  class  of  words  to  express  these,  for  all  the  various  purposes  of  life. 
The  word  river,  for  instance,  denotes  something  that  may  be  cool,  deep,  clear,  swift, 
hroad,  winding.  Apple  denotes  something  that  may  be  red,  large,  ripe,  mellow, 
juicy.  And  when  1  say,  "  that  apple,  this  apple,  every  apple,  four  apples,  the 
fourth  apple,"  the  slanting  words  show,  without  expressing  quality,  more  precisely 
what  I  mean.  These  qualifying  and  designating — these  descriptive  and  definitive 
words,  which  generally  add  an  idea  to  that  ol'the  noun,  are  thereiore  called  adjectives. 

What,  then,  is  an  adjective  t 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  thtj 
meaning  of  a  substantive. 

Ex. — White,  green,  good,  lazy,  tall,  shrill,  religious.    "  A  hay  horse  •  a  sharp 
knife ;  a  sharper  knife  ;  a  bright  day ;  a  stormy  night ;  golden  clouds ;  a  gmd  watch ; 
Missouri  apples  ;  a  quivering  aspen ;  that  sun-tipped  elm  ;  a  boy  nine  years  old.'''' 
Wliat  is  a  descriptive  adjective  ? 

A  descriptive  adjective  describes  or  qualifies. 

Ex. — "A  rapid  river;  the  Uue  sky;  a  modest  woman."  "She  is  ieauiiful, 
amiable,  and  intelligent.''''  '■'■  The  rippling  brook;  the  twinkling  stars;  waving 
woods;  a.  roaring  ■g.torm;  a  Jro/cea  pitcher."  The  last  five  adjectives,  and  others 
like  them,  are  usually  c-dilei  participial  adjectives. 

What  is  a  deji)iitive  adjective  ? 

A  deiiraiiive  adjective  merely  limits  or  modifies. 

Ex. — "i'Lw?*  peaches  ;  a^i  peaches;  some  poaches  ;  <Ais  peach  ;  v/o^tier  peaches." 
Which  are  the  principal  definitive  adjectives  ? 

All,  any,  both,  certain,  each,  every,  either,  else,  few,  many, 
many  a,  much,  neither,  no,  one,  other,  own,  same,  some,  such, 
that,  this,  very,  what,  ivhich,  and  yon  or  yonder.  One,  two, 
three,  four,  etc.;  frst,  second,  third,  etc. 

Nearly  all  the  adjectives  of  the  first  class  are  usually  called  pronominal  adjec- 
tives, some  of  them  being  occasionally  used  as  pronouns  ;  and  those  of  the  second 
class  are  called  numeral  adjectives,  bince  we  may  refer  to  o\)^qc%%  definitely,  if  def- 
i'litely,  or  distributi/cely,  the  pronominal  adjectives  are  accordingly,  some  ot  them, 
definite  or  demonstrative,  as  this,  that,  yonder;  some,  indefinite,  as  any,  some,  other  ; 
and  some,  d'tstribui/ive,  as  each,  every,  either,  neither,  many  a.  And  suice  we  may 
either  coant  or  number,  some  of  the  numeral  adjectives  are  called  cardinal,  as  utu^ 
Uvo,  three  ;  and  the  others,  ordinal,  ixs  first,  second,  third. 


ADJECTIVES.  ll' 

Since  the  same  quality  may  exist  in  different  objects,  and  in  the  same  degree  or 
m  different  degreeSj — as,  ^^red  cheeks,  red  roses,  red  hair,  redder  cheeks,  the  red- 
dest roses," — adjectives  have  what  grammarians  call  the  degrees  of  comparison  ;  the 
positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

When  is  an  adjective  iu  tha positive  degree,  or  what  does  t)iQ positive  degree  express? 

The  positive  degree  ascribes  the  quality  simply,  or  it 
ascribes  it  in  an  equal  degree. 

Ex. — High,  strong,  rocky,  polite,  black,  prudent ;  "  as  wMte  as  snow." 

When  is  an  adjective  in  the  comparaMve  degree,  or  what  does  the  comparative  degree 
express  ? 

The  comparative  degree  ascribes  the  quality  in  a 
higher  or  a  lower  degree. 

Ex. — Higher,  stronger,  rockier,  politer,  better,  more  prudent,  less  prudent. 

When  is  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree,  or  what  does  the  superlative  degree 
express  ? 

The   superlative  degree    ascribes   the  quality  in  the 

highest  or  the  lowest  degree. 

Ex. — Highest,  strongest,  rockiest,  politest,  best,  most  prudent,  least  prudent. 

How  are  adjectives  of  one  syllable,  and  some  of  two  syllables,  compared,  when  we  wish 
to  express  increase  of  the  quality  ? 

By  adding  r  or  er,  st  or  estj  to  the  word  in  the  positive 
degree. 

Ex. — Pos.  wise,  comp.  wiser,  superl.  wisest ;  great,  greater,  greatest ;  lovely, 
lovelier,  loveliest;  serene,  serener,  serenest. 

How  are  all  adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables,  and  some  of  two  syllables,  compared? 

By  more  and  most. 

Ex. — Pos.  beautiful,  comp.  more  leautiful,  superl.  most  leautiful;  active,  more 
active,  most  active  ;  unlucky,  more  unlucky,  most  unlucky. 

How  are  adjectives  compare^  when  we  wish  to  express  decrease  of  the  quality  ? 

By  less  and  least. 

Ex. — Wise,  less  toise,  least  wise  ;  arrogant,  less  arrogant,  least  arrogant. 

Some  adjectives  are  not  compared  according  to  the  foregoing  rules,  and  are 
therefore  said  to  be  irregular.    The  following  is  a  hst : — 

Positive.  Compar. 

Good,  better, 

Bad,  ill,  or  evil,  worse. 

Much  or  many,  more. 

Little,  less. 

Fore,  former, 

Can  all  adjectives  be  compared  ? 

Some  can  not  be  compared  with  propriety. 

Ex. — Eternal,  straight,  dead,  equal,  square,  perpendicular,  two-edged,  speech- 
less. 

Is  the  word  yhich  the  adjective  qualifies  or  limits,  always  expressed  ? 

It  is  not ;  but,  in  parsing,  it  must  be  supplied. 

Ex. — "These  apples  are  oetter  than  those"  [apples].  "The  idle  [persons]  are 
generally  mischievous." 


Superl. 

Posit. 

Compar. 

Superl. 

best. 

Hind, 

hinder. 

hindmost. 

worst. 

Far, 

farther. 

farthest. 

most. 

Near, 

nearer, 

nearest,  or  next. 

least. 

Late, 

later. 

Litest,  or  lasf. 

foremost,  or 

Old, 

older,  or  elder 

oldest,  or  eldest. 

first. 

1?  VERBS. 

5.  VERBS. 

[f  we  look  into  the  world,  we  shall  find,  that,  to  the  many  different  beings  and 
things  denoted  by  nouns  and  pronouns,  belong  not  only  many  different  qualities, 
denoted  by  adjectives,  but  also  many  different  motions,  actions,  and  states  of  ex- 
istence, which  are  expressed  by  certain  words  called  verbs ;  as,  John  reads,  writea^ 
runs,  and  plays. 

What,  then,  is  a  verb,  or  what  is  its  chief  use  in  language  ? 

A  verb  is  a  word  used  to  affirm  something  of  a  subject. 

Ex. — "  The  wind  Z»Zow«."  "  The  rose  &Zww«."  "There  is  an  endless  world." 
"  The  tree  is  dead."  "  If  I  should  go.''''  "  Brutus  stabled  Caesar."  "  Caesar  was 
stabbed  by  Brutus,"     "  Do  you  not  study?''*     "  Do  (you)  study  diligently." 

Verb  means  word,  or,pre-eminently,  the  word.  Grammariuns  have  called  this  part  of  speech  so,  be- 
cause it  makes  the  chief  part  of  every  grammar,  or  because  it  is  the  chief  word  of  language. 

Every  verb  denotes  some  kind  of  action  or  state.    And  affirmatiom,  with  gram- 
/iiarians,  mean  all  kinds  of  assertions  ;  also  commands  and  questions. 
Tell  which  are  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences,  and  why : — 

Birds  sing.    Mother  sews,  knits,  and  spins.     Columbus  discovered  America. 
Jesus  wept.    The  dew  glistens.     Go  where  the  men  are  reaping. 
The  problems  should  have  been  solved.    The  water  is  frozen. 

When  verbs  are  actually  used  to  express  aflSirmations,  they  are  called  ^finite 
verbs ;  but  tliere  are  two  forms  of  the  verb  which  do  not  express  aflBrmations',  and 
are  called  the  participle  and  the  infinitive :  as,  Writing,  written,  being  written,  hav- 
ing written,  having  been  written  ;  to  write,  to  have  written,  to  be  written,  to  have  been 
written. 

What,  then,  is  &  participle  t 

A  participle  is  generally  an  inflected  form  of  the 
verb,  construed  like  an  adjective,  and  expressing  no  affirma- 
tion. 

Ex. — "A  tree,  full  of  fruit;"  ^^  A  tree,  bending  with  fruit."  "He  said  few 
thmgs  INDICATIVE  of  wisdom  ;"  "He  said  few  things  indicating  wisdom."  "  The 
man  was  found  dead  ;"  "  The  man  was  found  murdered.'''' 

Inflected — changed  in  form  ;  as,  '  write,'  writing.    Conctrued — arranged  with  other  words. 
What  is  an  infinitive  f 

An  infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  beginning  generally 
with  to,  and  expressing  no  affirmation. 

Ex. — "  An  opportunity  to  study.''''  "  He  is  obliged  to  selV  "  He  seems  to  have 
been  disappointed.'''' 

Of  how  many  words  may  a  verb  consist? 

Of  as  many  as  four. 

Ex. — "  Eagles  soar.''''  "The  house  was  built.''''  "  The  mail  may  have  arrived.'^'' 
"  These  lessons  should  have  been  learned.''''  "  Having  written.''''  '■'■To  have  been 
writmg. 

Almost  every  verb  mav  be  expressed  in  a  great  variety^  of  ways  or  forms ;  thus, 
from  WRITE  we  have  writing,  wrote,  written,  writes,  writeth,  writest,  to  write,  to 
have  written,  to  be  wr'itten,  to  have  been  written,  to  be  writing,  to  have  been,  trn'ttin^g, 
having  written,  having  been  written,  is  written,  was  written,  should  be  written,  is 
writing,  was  writing,  can  write,  must  write,  will  write,  shall  write,  loould  write, 
should  writs,  could  write,  may  write,  might  write,_  may  be  written^  may  be  writing, 
may  have  been  writing,  might  have  been  tvritten,  might  have  been  writing,  mightst  have 
been  writing,  &c.,  &c. 

Now,that  we  may  be  enabled  to  master  all  these  different  forms, — understand 
their  meaning,  and  thus  be  enabled  \o  use  them  correctly, — grammarians  have 
found  it  best  to  divide  verbs  into  certain  classes,  and  also  to  "regard  them  a^  Laving 
certain  properties. 


l» 


preterit  played,  perfect  participle  played ;   move,  moved, 


How  are  verbs  classified  ? 

Into  regular  and  irregular,  with  reference  to  their  form. 

Into  transitive  and  intransitive,  with  reference  to  their 
meaning  or  use  ;  and  the  former  are  often  used  as  passive, 
and  some  of  the  latter  are  always  neuter. 

What  is  a  regular  verb  ? 

A  reg"ular  verb  takes  the  ending  ec?,  to  form  its  preterit 

and  its  perfect  participle. 

Ex. — Present 
moved. 

E,  at  the  end  of  a  word,  is  dropped  before  au  ending  that  begins  with  a  vowel.— In  stead  of  preterit 
the  pupil  may  also  say  past,  a  less  appropriate  but  more  euphonic  word. 
What  is  an  irregular  verb  ? 

An  irreg'ular  verb  does  not  take  the  ending  ed,  to  form 
its  preterit  and  its  perfect  participle. 

Ex. — Present  see,  preterit  smc,  perfect  participle  seen'  speak,  spohe,  spoTcen. 

Which  are  the  pnwczpal  parts  of  the  verb,  or  those  from  which  all  the  other  parts  are 
formed  ? 

The  principal  parts  are  the  present,  or  the  simplest  form 
as  registered  in  a  dictionary;  the  preterit,  or  the  simplest 
form  affirming  past  matter  of  fact ;  and  the  perfect  parti- 
ciple, or  the  form  making  sense  with  the  word  having  or 
heing. 

Ex. — Pres.  (to)  walk,  write;  pret.  (I)  walked,  (I)  wrote;  perf.  part,  having 
walked,  having  written. 


List  of  Irregular  Verbs. 


The  following  catalogue  exhibits  the  principal  parts  of  all  the  irregular  verbs. 
Having  learned  these,  the  student  also  knows  the  principal  parts  of  all  the  other 
verbs,  which  must  be  regular.  He  must  not  infer,  however,  from  the  word  irregu- 
lar, that  these  verbs  are  a  mere  straggling  offshoot  of  the  language ;  for  they  are 
really  the  very  core  or  pith  of  it. 

In  using  irregular  verbs,  we  are  liable  to  error  for  the  most  part  only  in  the  use  of  those 
whose  preterit  and  perfect  participle  are  not  alike.  These  verbs  have  therefore  been  given 
first,  and  separate  from  the  rest,  that  they  may  be  learned  perfectly.  R.  denotes  that  the 
regular  form  may  also  be  used  in  stead  of  the  others.  *  denotes  that  the  form  under  it  is 
seldom  used,  being  either  ancient,  poetic,  or  of  late  introduction.  The  form  supposed  to  be 
of  the  best  present  usage,  is  placed  first  The  second  form  of  some  verbs  is  preferable,  when 
applied  in  a  certain  way;  as,  " /'"eij/Zitei  with  spices  and  silks,"  "/»*aw<7/ii  with  mischief ;" 
"  thundersiTifcA;,"  "  sorrow-siricfcen." 

1.  The  Two   Past  Forms  Diffeeent. 
Present.    Preterit,  or  Past.  Perfect  Participle.    Present.    Preterit,  or  Past.    Perfect  Part. 

begotten, 
besfot. 


Arise, 
Awake, 

5"'  .. . 

arose, 
awoke,  r., 

was. 

arisen, 
awaked, 
awoke.* 
been. 

Beget, 
Begin, 

begot, 
begat;* 
began, 
begun,* 

Bear  (bring 

forth). 
Bear  (carry). 

Beat, 

Become, 
Befall, 

bore,  bare. 

born. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade, 

bore, 

beat, 

became, 
befell. 

borne. 

beaten, 

beat. 

become. 

bet'allen. 

Bite, 

Blow, 

Break, 

bit, 

blew,  r.,* 

broke, 

brake,* 

bid, 

bidden. 

bitten, 

bit. 

blown,  r.* 

broken, 

broke.* 


VERKS. 


Present    Preterit,  or  PasL  Perfect  Participle. 
Chide,  claid,  ^^i^den, 

Choose,  chose,  chosen. 

Cleave    (ad-    cleaved,  „i„„„„j 

here),  clave,^*  ^1^^^«^- 

cleft,  clove,  cleft 


Cleave  (split),  ^j^^^^' 

Come, 

Crow, 

Daro    (ven- 
ture), 

(Dare — chal- 
lenge, 

Dive, 

Do  (^princi- 
pal verb). 

Draw, 


Drink, 

Drive, 

Eat, 
Fall, 

Forbear, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 
Freeze, 

Freight, 

Get, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 
Grow, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hold, 

Know, 
Lade  (load), 

Lean, 

Leaj', 

Lie  (repose), 
(Lie- -speak 

fahety, 
Mow, 

Prove, 
Rend, 


came, 

crowed, 

crew, 

dared,'' 

durst, 

dared, 

dived,  dove,  dived. 


cloven, 
come. 

crowed. 

dared. 

dared.) 


did, 

drew, 

drank, 

drove, 

ate,  eat, 
fell, 
flew, 
forbore, 

forgot, 

forsook, 
froze, 

freighted, 

got, 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

grew, 

heaved, 

hove, 

hewed, 

hid, 

held, 

knew, 

laded, 

leaned, 

leant, 

leaped, 

leapt,* 

lay, 

lied, 

mowed, 

proved, 

rent. 


done. 

drawn. 

drunk, 

drank.* 

driven. 

eaten,  eat.* 

fallen. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forgotten, 

forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

freighted, 

fraught. 

got, 

gotten. 

given. 

gone. 

graven,  r. 

grown, 

heaved, 

hoven,* 

hewn,  r. 

hidden, 

hid. 

held, 

holden."^* 

known. 

laden,  r. 

leaned, 

leant. 

leaped, 

leapt.* 

lain. 

hed.) 

mown,  r. 

proved, 

proven.* 

rent, 

reuded.-^* 


.    Present. 
Eide, 

King, 
Kise, 
Eive, 
Eun, 
Saw, 
See, 

Seethe, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Show, 

Shrink, 

Slay, 

Slide, 

Smite, 

Sing, 

femk. 

Sow  (scatter)  f 

Speak, 

Spit, 

Spring, 

Steal, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

Strive, 
Strow, 

Swear, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Take, 
Tear, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Write, 


Preterit,  or  Past. 
rode, 

rang,  rung, 

rose, 

rived, 

ran,  run,* 

sawed, 

saw, 

seethed, 

sod, 

shook, 

shaped, 

shaved, 

sheared, 
shore,* 
showed, 
shrunk, 
shrank, 
slew, 

slid,  r., 
smote. 


Perfect  Pai-t. 

rode, 

ridden. 

rung. 

risen. 

riven,  r.* 

run. 

sawn,  r. 

seen. 

seethed, 

sodden. 

shaken. 

shaped, 

shapen. 

shaved, 

shaven. 

shorn,  r. 

shown,  r. 

shrunk, 

shrunken.* 

slain. 

slidden, 

slid,  r. 

smitten, 

smit. 


sung,  sang,  sung. 

sunk,  sank,  sunk. 

sowed, 

spoke, 

spake,* 

spit,  spat,* 

sprung, 

sprang, 

stole, 

strode, 

strid, 

struck, 

strove,  r., 

strewed, 

swore, 

sware, 

swelled, 

swum, 

swam, 

took, 

tore, 

thrived, 

throve, 

threw,  r., 

trod, 

trode,* 

waxed, 


wore, 
wove,  r. 
wrote, 
writ* 


sown,  r. 

spoken. 

spit, 
spitten.* 

sprung. 

stolen. 

stridden, 

strid. 

struck, 

stricken. 

striven,  r. 

strown,  r. 

sworn. 

swollen,  r, 

swum. 

taken. 

torn. 

thrived, 

thriven. 

thrown,  r.* 

trodden, 

trod. 

waxed, 

waxen. 

worn. 

woven,  r. 


(o.)  " My  tongue  ctowe  to  the  roof  of  my  moath." —Dickens,  (b.)  "This  Hue  he  darea 
not  cross." — Macaulay.  (c.)  Beholden;  withholden.*  (d.)  "  Come  aa  the  winds  come whea 
foTeataa.rQrended."—W.  Scott. 


VELRBS. 


le 


2.  TuE  Two  Past  os  tub  Thkeb  Fobms  Alikk. 
Present.    Preterit,  or  Past.  Perfect  Participle.    Present.    Preterit,  or  Past.      Perfect  Part. 

laid, 
led. 

learned, 
learnt, 
left, 
lent, 
let. 

lighted, 
lit. 
lost, 
made, 
meant, 
met. 
passed, 
past.'" 
paid, 
penned, 
pent, 
penned.) 
pleaded, 
plead, 
pled, 
put. 
quit,  r. 
rapped, 
rapt.c 
r§ad. 
reft,  r.* 
rid. 
said, 
sought, 
sold, 
sent, 
set. 
shed, 
shone,  r.* 
shod, 
shot, 
shred, 
shut, 
sat. 
slept, 
slung, 
slunk, 
slit,  r. 
smelt,  r. 
sped,  n* 
spelled, 
spelt, 
spent, 
spilt,  r. 
spun, 
split,  r.* 
spoiled, 
spoilt.* 
spread, 
stuid,  r.*! 
strung,  r. 

(a.)  Hang,  hanged,  hanged ;  to  suspend  by  tlie  neck  with  intent,  to  kill :  but  the  distinction 
is  not  always  observed,  (b.)  Past  is  used  as  an  adjective  or  as  a  noun,  (c.)  Rap,  rapt,  rapt : 
to  seize  with  rapture,     (d.)  Stay,  stayed,  stayed ;  to  cause  to  slop. 


Abide, 
Behold, 

abode,  ?•.,* 

abode,  r.* 

i^ay? 

laid. 

beheld, 

beheld. 

Lead, 

led. 

Belay, 
Bena, 

belaid,  r., 
bent,  r., 

belaid,  r. 
bent,  r. 

Learn, 

learned, 
learnt, 

Bereave, 

bereft,  n. 

bereft,  r. 

Leave, 

left. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besoufrht. 

Lend, 

lent. 

Bestead,* 

bestead,* 

bestead.* 

Let, 

let, 

Bet, 

bet,  r.. 

bet,  r. 

Light, 

lighted, 

Betide, 

betided, 

betided. 

lit, 

betid,* 

betid.* 

Lose, 

lost. 

Bind, 
Bleed, 

bound, 

bound. 

Make, 

made. 

bled. 

bled. 

Mean, 

meant, 

Blend, 

blended, 

blended, 

Meet, 

met. 

blent,* 

blent.* 

Pass 

passed. 

Bless, 

blessed. 

blessed. 

past,* 

blest, 

blest. 

I'ay, 

paid, 

Breed, 

la; 

bred, 
brought, 

bred, 
brought. 

Pen  (fence  in 

N  penned, 
^'  pent. 

built,  r., 

built,  r. 

(Pen — writej 

penned. 

Barn, 

burned. 

burned. 

pleaded, 

burnt. 

burnt. 

Plead, 

plead, 

Burst, 

burst,  ?•.,* 

burst,  r.* 

pled. 

Boy,' 

bought. 

bought. 

Put, 

put. 

Cast. 
Catch, 

cast. 

cast. 

Quit, 

quit,  r., 

caught,  r., 

*  caught,  r.* 

Rap, 

rapped. 

CUng, 

clung. 

clung. 

rapt, 
read, 

Clothe, 

clothed, 

clothed. 

Read, 

clad, 

clad. 

Reave, 

reft,  r.* 

Cost, 

cost. 

cost. 

Rid, 

rid,' 

Creep, 

crept, 

crept. 

Say 
Seek, 

said, 

Cut, 

cut, 
dealt,  r.* 

cut. 

sought, 
sold. 

Deal, 

dealt,  r. 

Sell, 

Dig, 

dug,  r.. 

dug,  r. 
dwelt,  r. 

Send, 

sent. 

DweU, 

dwelt,  r., 

Set, 

set. 

Dream, 

dreamed, 

dreamed. 

Shed, 

shed, 

dreamt. 

dreamt. 

Shine, 

shone,  r.,* 

Dress, 

dressed. 

dressed, 

Shoe, 

shod. 

drest,* 

drest.* 

Shoot, 

shot, 

Feed, 

fed. 

fed. 

Shred, 

shred, 

Feel, 

felt. 

felt. 

Shut, 

shut, 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought. 

Sit, 

sat. 

Find, 

found. 

found. 

Sleep, 

slept. 

Flee, 

fled. 

fled. 

Sling, 

slung, 

Fling, 

flung. 

flung. 

Slink 

slunk. 

Gild 

gilded. 

gilded, 

Slit, 

slit,  r., 

giit, 

gilt. 

Smell, 

smelt,  r., 
sped,  r.* 

Gird, 

girt,  r.. 

girt,  r. 

Speed, 

Grind, 
Hang, 

ground, 
hung,  r., 

ground, 
hung,  r." 

Spell, 

spelled, 
spelt. 

Have  (pnnci 

■  iia(j 

had. 

Spend, 

spent. 

pal  verb), 

Spill, 

spilt,  r., 

Hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

Spin, 

spun, 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

Split, 

split,  r., 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Spoil, 

spoiled, 

Keep, 

kept. 

kept. 

spoilt,* 

Kneel, 

knelt, 

knelt. 

Spread, 

spread. 

kneeled. 

kneeled. 

Stay, 

staid,  r.. 

Knit, 

knit,  r., 

knit,  r. 

String, 

strung,  r.,* 

16 


Present. 

Slave, 

Stand, 

Stick, 

Stinff, 

Stink, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 

Swin£^, 

Teacii, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrust, 

Wake, 

Wed, 

Weep, 
Wet, 
Win, 
Wind, 


Pi  eterit,  or  Past. 
Rtove,  r., 
stood, 
•     Btuck, 
stun^, 
stunk, 
sweat,  r., 
swet, 
swept, 
swung, 
taught, 
told, 
thought, 
thrust, 
woke,  ?*., 
wedded, 
wed,* 
wept, 
■wet,  n, 
won, 
wound,  r. 


Perfect  Particip. 
stove,  r. 
stood, 
stuck, 
stung, 
stunk, 
sweat,  r. 
swet. 
swept, 
swung, 
taught, 
told, 
thought, 
thrust, 
woke,  r. 
wedded, 
wed.* 
wept, 
wet,  r. 
won. 
,,*  wound,  r.* 


Present. 
Work, 
Wring, 

Beware,  

Can,  could. 

Do  (auxil'y'),  did. 
Have  (auxil'y),  had. 

May,  might. 

Must,  must. 

Ought,  ought, 

quoth, 

Shall,  should, 

Will  (auxil'y),  would. 


Preterit,  or  Past.  Perfect  Part 
worked,         worked, 
wrought,       wrought, 
wrung,  r.,*  wrung,  r.* 


(Will— wis//, 


willed, 


Wit, 
Wis,* 
Weet,* 
Wot,*    J 


wot,* 

wist 

wote, 


willed.) 


What  are  the  last  few  verbs  usually  termed? 

Defective,  because  some  of  the  parts  are  wanting ;  and 
verbs  having  more  parts  than  are  absolutely  necessary,  are 
termed  redundant,  as  bereave,  slide,  swim. 

How  are  formed  the  principal  parts  of  verbs  derived  from  others  by  means  of  prefixes  ? 

Generally  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  their  primitives. 

Ex. — Take,  tooh,  taken ;  mistake,  mistook,  mistaken. 


When  is  a  verb  transitive,  or  what  is  a  transitive  verb? 

A  transitive  verb  has  an  object. 

Ex. — "John  struck  James."     "Cats  devour  raib  and  mice."     "I  know  him— 

the  LESSON." 

Transitive  means  passing  over:  there  is  generally  an  act  passing  from  the  doer  to  what  is  acteo 
on.  Intransitive  m^ims  not  passing  over.  Passive  melons  suffering  or  receiving.  Neuter  menus  neither , 
and  neuter  verbs  were  so  named  because  they  are  neither  active  nor  passive. 

What  is  a  passive  verb  ? 

A  passive  verb  is  a  transitive  verb  so  used  that  it  rep- 
resents its  subject  as  acted  upon. 

Ex. — "  John  struck  James."     "  James  was  struck  by  John." 
When  is  a  verb  intransitive,  or  what  is  an  intransitive  verb  ? 

An  intransitive  verb  does  not  have  an  object. 

Ex. — '■^  Johnwalks.^''  "  The  child  cries."  "  The  rose  Jfoom«."  "  Webster  «w!* 
eloquent."     "  Webster  was  an  orator."     "Alice  reads  and  writes  well." 

What  is  a  neuter  verb  ? 

A  neuter  verb  is  an  intransitive  verb  that  does  not  imply 
action  or  exertion. 

Ex. — "Troy  tea*."  " There  w  a  land  of  every  land  the  pride."  "The  span 
lay  on  the  shelf."    "  The  baby  sleeps.'''    "  The  plants  look  green  and  fresh." 


17 

What  properties  have  verbs  ? 

Toiccs,  nioodi^,  tenses,  persons,  and  numbers. 


2l»  A  transitive  verb  can  generally  be  expressed  in  two  different  vrays  ;  as» 
"  Farmers  raise  corn,"  "  Corn  is  raised  by  farmers":  and  hence  they  are  "said  tc 
have  two  voices, — the  active  and  the  passive. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  active  voice,  or  what  does  this  voice  denote  ? 

The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting,  or  the 
verb  as  relating  to  an  object. 

Ex. — "David  slew  Goliath."  "John  resembles  his  father."  "They  owned 
this  farm." 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice,  or  what  does  this  voice  denote  ? 

The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted  upon, 
or  the  verb  as  having  the  object  for  its  subject. 

Ex, — "  Goliath  was  slain  by  David."    "  This  farm  was  owned  by  them." 


1>.  If  I  say,  ^^  J  write.,''''  I  express  a  matter  of  fact;  "I  mayor  can  write,''''  I 
express  what  is  not  matter  of  fact,  yet  may  become  so;  "If  I  were  writing,''''  "  If 
I  fiad  written,''''  I  express  a  mere  supposition ;  "  Wr'ite,''''  I  req^uest  it  to  be  done ; 
"  To  write,''''  "  Writing,''''  I  simply  speak  of  the  act.  These  difterent  modes  of  ex- 
pressing the  verb  in  reference  to  its  subject,  may  give  you  some  idea  of  what  gram- 
marians call  moods. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  indicative  mood,  or  what  does  the  indicative  mood  express  ? 

The  indicative  mood  affirms  something  as  an  actual 
occurrence  or  fact. 

Ex. — "John  has  caught  some  fish."  "  God  created  this  beautiful  world."  "  Cork 
jioats:''  "  The  guilty  are  not  happy."     "  Far  away  in  the  South  is  a  beautiful  isle." 

Indicative  means  declHring;  sut>jiinctive,  joined  to;  potential^  having  power;  imperative,  com- 
mandiag;  and  infinitive,  left  free. 

How  does  the  subjunctive  mood  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  subjunctive  mood  affirms  something  as  a  future 
contingency,  or  as  a  mere  supposition,  wish,  or  conclusion. 

Ex. — "  If  it  raiii  to-night,  our  plants  will  live."  "  Beware  lest  he  deceive  you." 
"He  talked  to  me  as  if  I  were  a  widow."  "  Were  1  a  lawyer,  I  should  not  li'ke  to 
plead  a  rogue's  case."  "  0,  had  I  the  wings  of  a  dove." — Oowper.  "  But  if  I  asked 
your  papa,  he  would  only  say  you  had  better  [to]  stay  at  home." — Bulwer.  '■  But 
I  should  wrong  my  friend,  if  I  concealed  it.'' — Jd.  "  If  conscience  had  had  as 
strong  a  hold  on  his  mind  as  honor,  he  had  still  been  innocent." — British  Essayists, 

What  words  often  precede  this  mood,  or  indicate  it  ? 

//",  though,  that,  lest,  except,  unless,  provided,  &c. 

What  does  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  suggest,  when  it  refers  to  present  oi 
past  time? 

That  the  contrary  of  what  is  supposed,  or  something  dif- 
ferent, is  the  true  state  of  the  case.       See  above. 

What  other  mood  does  the  subjunctive  resemble  in  its  form,  and  what  one  in  its 
meaning  ? 

In  its  form,  the  indicative  ;  but  in  meaning,  the  potential, 
with  which  it  is  also  most  frequently  associated  in  sen- 
tences.      See  above. 


18  VERBS. 

How  does  the  potential  represent  the  act  or  state? 

The  potential  mood  affirms  merely  the  power,  libei-ty, 
liability,  necessity,  will,  duty,  or  some  other  relation  of  the 
subject  to  the  act  or  state. 

Ex.—"  God  can  destroy  this  world."  "  You  may  play:'  "  Youth  may  he  trifled 
away."  "  They  who  would  be  happy,  must  be  virtuous."  "  Children  should  obey 
their  teachers." 

How  can  this  mood  be  known,  or  what  words  are  used  to  express  it? 

May^  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  sliould. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mood,  or  what  does  the  imperative  mood  express? 

The  imperative  mood  expresses  command,  exhorta- 
tion, entreaty,  or  permission. 

Ex.—"  John,  study  your  lesson."  "  Go  where  glory  waits  thee."  "  Oh  1  then 
reinember  me."     "  Return  to  your  friends." 

"We  command  inferiors,  exhort  equals,  entreat  superiors,  and  permit  in  compliance  with  the  will 
of  others. 

What  is  the  subject  of  every  verb  in  the  imperative  mood  ? 

Thou,  you,  or  ye,  usually  understood. 

Ex.—" Know  thyself  "==  Know  thou  thyself.  "My  young  friends,  be  pure  and 
cautiou8"=My  young  friends,  be  ye  pure  and  cautious. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  how  does  this  mood  express  the  act  or  state? 

The  infinitive  mood  does  not  affirm  the  act  or  state. 
It  comprised  the  participle  and  the  infinitive. 

Ex.— '' Corn  to  grind:'    ^' The  clonda  dispersing:'    ^^  Be  caxeM  to  avoid  the 

jr." 

Which  of  the  moods  can  be  used  interrogatively  ? 

The  indicative  and  the  potential. 

Ex.— ">SAaM  we   slight    this  decisive  moment?"      "Who  is  the  culprit?" 
"How  canlV 
•    How  are  they  made  interrogative  ? 

By  placing  the  subject  after  the  verb,  or  after  some  part  of  it. 

Ex.— "Thou  art  he;"    "Akt  thou  hel"    "You  can  help  us;"    "Can  you 

HELP  US  ?" 

How  mamj  moods,  and  what  are  they  ? 


C.  Time  may  naturally  be  divided  into  present,  past,  and  future-  and  we  may 
consider  an  act  or  state  as  simply  taking  place  in  eacn  of  these  periods,  or  as  com- 
pleted :  thus,  "  I  write,  I  have  written  /"  "  I  wrote,  I  had  written  ;"  I  shaU  wriU, 
I  ^Jiall  have  written:'    Hence  verbs  have  what  grammarians  call  temes. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  present  tense,  or  what  does  this  tense  express? 

The  present  tense  expresses  the  act  or  state  in  present 
time. 

Ex.—"  I  wHte:'  "  I  am  wHting:'  "  It  snwvs:'  "  You  may  commence:'  "Let 
me  see  ;rour  new  book."  "«t.  Louis  is  situated  on  a  plain  iordermg  on  the  Mis- 
Bissippi." 


VEEBS.  19 

In  wliat  peculiar  sense  is  this  tenss  sometimes  used  ? 

To  express  what  is  always  so  from  the  very  nature  oi  con- 
dition of  things. 

Ex. — "  Heat  melts  ice."  "  A  fool  and  his  money  are  soon  parted.''''  "  Moles  bur- 
ro?«  in  the  ground."  "  Traveling  i^  expensive."  "People  mttst  dieJ'^  "Man  *s 
i/iade  to  mourn.'''' 

When  is  a  verh  in  the  past  tense,  or  what  is  the  moaning  of  this  tense  ? 

The  past  tense  refers  the  act  or  state  simply  to  past  time. 

Ex. — "  God  created  the  world."  "Troy  was,  but  is  no  more."  "  Away  went 
Gilpin."  "  Bonaparta  was  hanisJied  to  St.  Ileletia,"  "  She  died  this  morning." 
"  i  soon  saw  that  lie  covld  not  see."     "  The  ship  arrived  before  day." 

This  tense  is  usually  called  the  imperfect  tense,  but  inappropriately.  It  may  be  well  to  call  it 
the  aoriist  tense,  in  the  subjunctive  and  the  potential  mood,  whenever  it  does  not  denote  past  time. 

When  is  a  verh  in  the  future  tense,  or  what  is  the  meaning  of  this  tense  ? 

The  Iftiture  tense  refers  the  act  or  state  simply  tq  future 
time. 

Ex. — "The  cars  will  come  this  evening."  "  Merit  wi^Z  he  rewarded.''''  "The 
trees  w'lll  shed  their  leaves."     "  There  will  he  a  final  judgment  day." 

When  is  a  verh  in  the  perfect  tense,  or  what  does  this  tense  express  ? 

The  perfect  tense  represents  something  as  past,  but 
still  connected  with  present  time. 

Ex. — "  This  magnificent  city /iffs  been  huilt  within  one  hundred  years."  "He 
has  practised  law  two  years."  "  I  have  just  sold  my  liorse."  "  The  mail  may  have 
arrived.^''  "  This  house  appears  to  have  been  a  clmrch."  "  Though  severely  wounded. 
he  still  lives." 

When  is  a  verh  in  the  pluperfect  tense,  oj  what  does  this  tense  express? 

The  pluperfect  tense  represents  something  as  finished 
or  ended  by  a^  certain  past  time. 

Ex. — "  I  had  already  sent  my  trunk  to  the  river,  when  I  received  your  letter." 
"  A  fish  had  been  on  the  hook."    "  A  fish  might  have  been  on  the  hook." 

When  is  a  verh  in  the  future-perfect  tense,  or  what  does  this  tense  express  ? 

The  fiitaire-perfect  tense  represents  something  as  fin- 
ished or  ended  by  a  certain  future  time. 

Ex. — "  The  flowers  will  have  withered,  when  winter  returns." 

GENERA.L  iLLtrsTEATiON. — I  wrfte  (now).  I  havc  written  (just  now).  I  wrote 
fat  some  past  time).  I  had  written  (by  or  before  a  certain  past  time).  I  shall  write 
(at  some  time  hereafter).  I  shall  have  written  (by  or  before  a  certain  future  time). 
t>o,  The  tree  blossoms — has  blossomed — blossomed — had  blossomed — will  blossom 
— will  have  blossomed.  The  three  perfect  tenses  are  sometimes  called  the  relative 
tenses,  because  they  relate  from  one  point  of  time  to  another ;  and  the  other  three 
tenses,  which  have  not  this  relation,  are  called  the  absolute  tenses. 

Every  perfect  tense,  except  sometimes  a  participle,  must  have  what  two  parts? 

Have^  or  some  one  of  its  variations,  and  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple of  some  verb. 

Ex. — Have  written  ;  having  written  ;  to  have  written  ;  ma>  have  written:  has  been 
writing  ;  should  have  been  writing  ;  had  written  ;  shall  have  Avrittcn ;  shall  have 
been  written. 


20  VERBS. 

How  does  tie  present,  the  past,  or  the  future  tense,  sometimes  express  an  act  or  state  ? 

As  something  habitual  or  customary  in  present,  past,  or 
future  time. 

Ex. — "  He  chews  tobacco."  "  People  go  to  churcli  on  Sunday."  "  The  dead  are 
put  into  the  ground."  "  There  would  he  spend  his  earnings."  "  The  wolf  also 
shall  dwell  with  the  lamb,  and  the  leopard  shall  lie  down  with  the  kid." 

When  the  act  or  state  is  expressed  as  ideal  rather  than  real,  as  in  the  subjunctive  mood, 
and  frequently  in  the  potential,  what  may  be  observed  of  the  tenses,. in  respect  to  the  time  of 
the  event  ? 

That  they  move  forward,  one  tense  or  more,  in  time. 

Ex. — "  If  I  am" — ^now ;  "  If  I  Z-e" — hereafter.  "  If  I  was'''' — at  any  past  time  ; 
"  If  I  were''' — ^now.  "  I  had  leen  there" — before  that  time  ;  "  Had  1  been  there"— 
at  that  time.  '•  I  am  paying  you" — now;  "  I  may  or  can  pay  you" — next  Christ- 
mas. "  I  paid  you" — then';  "  I  might  or  could  pay_  you" — now.  "  I  had  paid  you" 
— before  a  certain  past  time ;  "  I  might  have  paid  you" — at  a  certain  past  time. 
"  Such  governments  could  not  last,  if  they  contained  ever  so  much  wisdom  and 
virtue." — F.  Henry.    At  any  time.    See  2a  def.  of  present  teuse. 


In  most  of  the  tenses,  a  verb  may  be  expressed  in  several  different  ways :  as, 
'•'■1A.'&  strikes  f  '■'■ 'B.q  does  strike  •'''  '■'■  lie  is  strilc'mg f  "  VLq  is  struck  \''''  '■^  He  striketk.^'' 
These,  grammarians  usually  distinguish,  by  calling  them,  emphatically,  the  i-obms 
of  the  verb. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  common  form,  or  what  is  the  common  form  ? 

The  common  form  is  the  verb  expressed  in  the  most 
Kimple  and  ordinary  manner. 

Ex. — "  He  went  home."    "  Time  ji^ie*."    "  No  man  has  ever  been  too  honest." 
When  is  a  verb  in  the  emplmtic  form,  or  what  is  the  emphatic  form  ? 

The  emphatic  form  has  do  or  did  as  a  part  of  the 
verb,  to  give  it  greater  force. 

Ex. — "  I  did  say  so."    "  Keally,  it  does  'move.''''    "  Do  come  to  see  me." 
■\Vhen  is  a  verb  in  the  progressive  form,  or  what  is  the  progressive  form  ? 

The  progressive  form  is  he,  or  some  variation  of  it, 
combined  with  the  participle  that  ends  in  ing.  It  denotes 
continuance  of  the  act  or  state. 

Ex. — "  I  wrote ;"  "  I  was  writingJ*^  "  She  goes  to  church  ;"  "  She  is  going  tt 
church," 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  passive  form,  or  what  is  the  passive  form  ? 

The  passive  form  is  he,  or  some  variation  of  it,  combined 
writh  the  perfect  participle.     It  is  generally  passive  in  sense. 

Ex. — "  The  oak  was  shattered  by  lightning."    "  The  melancholy  days  are  come.'''' 
When  is  a  verb  in  the  ancient  form,  or  solemn  style,  or  how  may  this  form  be  known? 

The  ancient  form  has  the  ending  f,  st,  or  est,  and  th  or 
eth,  and  generally  uses  thou  or  ye  in  stead  of  you. 

Ex.—"  Thou  barVdst  the  dart  that  wounds  thee."  "  Adve'-sity  Jiattereth  no 
man." 

Hoio  many  tenses,  and  what  are  they  f— how  many  forms,  and  lohat  are  tlien  f 


d.  When  I  say,  "  I  am,  thou  art,  he  i«;"  "  I  write,  thou  wr'vfest,  he  writ.es  ;" 
you  see  that  the  verb  varies  with  the  person  of  its  subject :  and  when  I  say,  "I 
am,  we  are;''''  "  He  is,  they  are  f  "  fie  tvrites,  tb  7  ivrite  ,•"  you  see  tliat  the  verb 


VERBS.  21 

varies  with  the  rowmber  of  its  subject.  Hence  the  verb  is  said  to  have  person  aud 
nunitjer  ;  that  is,  it  is  so  expressed  as  to  indicate  the  person  and  number  of  its  sub- 
ject, and  thereby  the  subject  itself. 

What,  then,  is  meant  by  the  person  and  nuniber  of  a  verb  ? 

The  pefson  and  eiaiBfiil)er  of  a  verb  are  its  form  as  being 
suitable  to  the  person  and  number  of  its  subject. 

The  term  "  Afwrn  of  the  verb,"  signifies,  in  its  widest  sense,  any  mode  of  expressing  it. 
When  is  a  verb  singular,  and  when  plural  t 

It  is  singular,  when  its  form  is  proper  for  predicating  of  a 
singular  subject;  ixndi plural^  when  proper  for  predicating  of 
a  plural  subject. 

Ex. — "The  NIGHT ^^a•?  serene,  and  the  stars  we/'e  ^ifiw./tZmp' most  brilliantly  in 
tlieir  blue  depths." 

Define  singrwtor  subjects  auA.  plural  subjects. 

A  singular  subject  denotes  one  object,  or  more  objects  taken 
singly  or  separately;  a  plural  subject  denotes  more  than  one, 
l)ut  not  taken  as  one  single  thing. 

Ex. — Singular:  '■'■Theboy  is  studious;"  '■'■Eoery  tree  is  known  by 

its  fruit;"  "Jr>An.,  Jam^s,  or  Joseph^  is  studying  ;"  ^'■Neither  John,  Jamss,  nor 

Joseph,  is  studying."     Plural:   '■'•  The  boys  are  studious;"    '■'■John, 

James,  and  Joseph,  are  studious  ;"  "  The  people  are  fickle." 

in  correct  discourse,  of  what  person  and  number  is  the  verb  always  said  to  be  ? 

Of  the  same  as  its  subject,  or  nominative. 

Ex. — "  I  aw."  Here  am  is  said  to  be  of  the  first  person  and  singular  number, 
because  its  pubject,  /,  is  of  this  person  and  number. 


PARTICIPLES  AND  INFINITIVES. 

What  is  a  participle  ?    What  is  an  infinitive  ?    See  p.  12. 

How  many  and  what  participles  are  there,  and  how  many  and  what  infinitives  are  there  ? 

Two  of  each, — the  present  and  the  perfect;  and  also  a 
third  participle,  the  compound. 

How  does  i\x&  present  participle  represent  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  present  participle  represents  the  act  or  state  as 
present  and  continuing  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — "  We  saw  the  moon  rlshigP     "  Who  goes  borrowing,  goes  sorrowing^ 
How  does  the  present  infinitive  represent  the  act  or  statu? 

The  present  infinitive  represents  the  act  or  state  as 
present  at  the  time  referred  to,  but  oftener,  as  future. 

Ex. — "He  seems  to  study.''''  "Man  never  is,  but  always  to  Je,  blest." — Pope. 
"  I  intended  to  say  less,  and  certainly  expected  to  hear  more  liberal  sentiments  of- 
fered on  the  other  side." 

Hoir  does  the  perfect  participle  or  infinitive  represent  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  perfect  participle  or  infinitive  represents  the 
act  or  state  as  past  or  ended  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — "A  fox,  caught  in  a  trap."  "The  river  appears  to  have  risen.''^  "The 
Indians  are  supposed ',^0  have  come  from  Asia  or  Siberia." 


22  VEKBS. 

The  perfect  participle  Ls  sometimes  present  iu  sense ;  as,  "  He  Hves  hved 
by  all."  The  present  infinitive  sometimes  denotes  simply  the  aci  or  state ;  and 
the  perfect  infinitive,  the  completed  act  or  state. 

What  is  a  compound  participle  ? 

A  compound  participle  coDsists  of  two  or  more  par- 
ticiples ;  and  it  is  in  sense  generally  a  perfect,  but  sometimes 
a  present,  participle. 

Ex. — '■'■  Having  vurclmneil  a  farm,  lie  retired  to  the  country."  "  The  terms  l)emg 
«e^^ZeciI,  he  produced  the  ca.^li."  "He,  liamng  leen  previously  engaged,  and  le'mg 
then  engaged^  in  making  surveys  of  the  country,  was  the  most  tiuitable  marr»we 
could  find." 

How  is  the  participle  sometimes  used  ? 

As  an  adjective,  and  then  called  a  participial  adjective. 

Define  &  participial  adjective. 

A  participial  adjective  ascribes  the  act  or  state  to  its 
subject  as  a  quality. 

Ex. — "  A  leaping  and.  murmuring  rivulet ;"  "  Written  laws." 
Participles  and  infinitives  are  frequently  used  as  what  other  parts  of  speech  ? 

As  nouns,  and  then  often  called  verbal  nouns. 

When  should  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  be  considered  a  noun? 

When  it  evidently  takes  the  place,  and  is  used  in  the  sense, 
of  a  noun. 

Ex. — '■'■  To  live  vf\^\o\\\,  leing  annoyed^  y^  pleasant."  What  is  pleasant?  with- 
out what? — Life  without  annoyance  is  pleasant.  "Successful  studying  requires 
exertion."  "^o  have  learned  so  beautiful  an  art,  will  be  ever  a  pleasure  to  me." 
" My  ^72^w?^^  him  was  of  great  advantage  to  me."  "His  Jiavvng  leen  there,  was 
the  ground  of  suspicion."  "  To  live  temperately,  to  avoid  excitement,  and  to  take 
alternate  exercise  and  rest,  are  essential  to  health.'' ''=■  Temperance,  tranquillity,  and 
alternate  exercif^e  and  rest,  are  essential  to  health.  "  Boyslike  to  play.''''  (Boys  like 
apples.)  "  He  began  to  wwi."  (He  began  his  work.)  '•'■To  love  is  to  oleyr  '■'•To  be 
—or  not  to  Se,— that  is  the  question  !"  {Life— or  death,— l\ia.t  is  the  question  !) 

AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

No  complete  verb  in  our  language  can  express  all  its  properties,  or  be  expressed 
in  all  its  forms,  without  the  aid  of  certain  other  little  verbs.  Thuy,  to  express 
"  strike"  in  future  time,  we  say,  "  shall  or  will  strike  ;"  in  the  potential  mood, 
^'■may,  can,  must,  might.,  could, "would,  or  should  strike;"  in  the  passive  voice,  "if 
struck,  was  struck,  heing  struck,"  &c.  These  little  helping  verbs  aa-e  tljereforo 
called  auxiliary  verbs.    Auxiliary  means  helping. 

How,  then,  would  you  defindSn  auxiliarij  verb  ? 

An  atixiliai'y  verb  helps  another  verb  to  express  its 
meaning  in  a  certain  manner  or  time. 

Which  are  the  auxiliary  verbs  ? 

Be,  and  all  its  variations  ;  do.,  did;  can,  could;  have, 
had;  may.,  might;  must;  shall,  should;  ivill,  would. 

For  what  are  the  auxiliaries  he  and  its  variations  used  ? 

They  are  used  to  express  the  verb  progressively  or  pas- 
sively. 

Ex.— "The  farmor  tV  ploughing  hltJ  field."     "  The  field  ix ploughed.'''' 


VERBS.  23 

For  trhaf;  are  the  auxiliaries  da  and  did,  used  ? 

They  areused  to  express  the  verb  with  emphasis,  or  with 
greater  force. 

Ex. — "  I  do  assure  you,  I  shall  be  here  in  time."     "  He  did  say  so. 
What  do  can  and  could  imply  ? 

Power  or  ability. 

Ex. — "  I  can  lift  the  stone."  "  I  can  learn  the  lesson."  "  I  could  not  gl^^e  my 
uonseut." 

What  do  have  and  had  imply,  and  for  what  are  they  uiscd? 

They  imply  possession,  and  are  used  to  express  the  act  or 
state  as  finished  or  ended  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — '*  I  have  gathered  the  plums,  which  the  wind  had  llmcn  down." 
What  meaning  in  conveyed  hy  may  and  tnight  t 

Permission,  possibility,  or  probability ;  sometimes  reason- 
ableness. 

Ex. — "  You  map  go  to  play."  "  But  remember  the  horse  mai/  die.''''  "  It  may 
ram  this  evening."     "  But  the  question  might  be  asked,  wlietiier  the  tax  is  legal." 

What  do  must,  shall,  and  should  denote  ? 

Duty  or  injunction  :  but  shall,  more  frequently  compul- 
sion ;  and  must,  generally  necessity. 

Ex. — "  We  should  care  for  others'  feelings."  "  Thou  shall  not  swem\''''  *'  You 
mast  not  look  for  me  before  next  week."  "  Pupils  must  obey.''''  "  Naughty  boy  1 
you  i^hall  be  punished.^'' 

What  do  will  and  icould  denote  ? 

Willitigness,  adaptation,  or  tendency. 

Ex. — "  He  would  pay  if  he  could."  "  This  will  do.''''  "  Weeds  will  grow  where 
there  is  no  cultivation."     "  Eoses  will  fade. ^'' 

For  what  purpose  are  all  the  auxiliaries  more  or  less  used  ? 

To  express  the  verb  interrogatively.  For  this  purpose, 
they  are  placed  before  the  nominative. 

Ex. — "  \ou  are  wounded."     '"'•  Are  you  wounded?"     '•'•Does  he  know  you?" 

COXJUGATIOX  AND  SYNOPSIS. 

What  is  it,  to  conjugate  a  verb  ? 

To  conjugate  a  verb  is  to  show,  in  a  regular  way,  how 
some  or  all  of  its  parts  are  correctly  expressed. 

Ex. — £e  and  write  in  the  present  tense,  indicative  mood. 

Singular.  Plural 

First  Pees.  I  am,  FmsT  Pers.  We  are, 

Second  Pers.  You  are,  Second  Pers.  You  are, 

Third  Peks.  He,  she,  or  it,  is;  Third  Pers.  They  are. 

1.  I  write,  1.  We  write, 

2.  You  write,  2.  You  write, 

3.  He,  she,  or  it,  writes  ;  3.  They  write. 

Conj'igniinn  probably  signified,  in  old  times,  the  joining  of  vfirions  endings  ar.d  prefixes  to  th« 
eWef  parts  of  ve;-!)s,,  called  the  roots ;  but,  with  lis,  the  word  rather  sigailios  the  jo-niug  of  t>  e  varioui 
^bms  to  their  ditiereiit  nominatives. 


24 


VERBS. 


What  is  it,  to  give  the  synopsis  of  a  verl)  ? 

To  giva  the  synopsis  of  a  verb,  is  to  express  it  correotly, 
ia  a  single  person  and  number,  or  in  a  particular  form,  through 
some  or  all  of  its  moods  and  tenses. 

Ex. — Synopsis  of  write,  with  /,  through  the  indicative  mood:  Presetit,  I  write;  past, 
I  wrote  ;  future,  /  ^'haU  or  will  wrlt>: ;  perfect,  /  have  written;  pluperfect,  iTiad  written  , 
future-perfect,  I  Huall  or  wUlhave  written. 

The  word  ni/nop^i.i  means  a  looJt,  at  th<i  whole ;  and  as  we  are  apt  to  see  only  the  chief  or  nosi  striking 
parts,  by  looking'  at  all  at  once,  the  word  hiis  come  to  signify  the  chief  parts  or  the  outline  cf  tne  whale 
Of'  a  thing. 


CONJUGATION  EXEMPLIFIED. 

I  have  here  presented  to  you  the  very  irregular  verb  he,  tlie  regular  verb  move,*'  and 
the  irregular  verb  take,  in  all  the  forms  in  which  they  can  be  expressed.  Like  them,  or 
by  their  means,  may  all  other  verbs  be  expressed  in  all  their  forms ;  and  for  /,  yo-u,  he, 
s}ie,  it,  we,  you,  and.  they,  can  be  used  any  other  nominatives  having  the  same  person  and 
number,  that  is,  all  nominatives  whatsoever ;  so  that  the  following  conjugation  is  suffl- 
(.ent  to  teach  all  the  correct  forms  of  all  the  verbs,  for  all  the  propositions  that  have  been 
spoken  or  written,  and  all  that  can  be  spoken  or  written,  in  the  English  language. 

Recite  the  following  paradigm,  across  the  page ;  and  the  synopsis  with  thou,  down  the  page. 
C.  stands  for  Common  Form ;  E.,  for  Emphatic;  iV.,  for  Progressive  ;  and  P.,  for  Passive. 

Observe  that  the  verb,  like  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  thdr  d-oleusio'i,  verna;ns  sometimes  unchanged  is 
sometimes  partly  changed,  and  is  sometimes  wholly  changed,  to  express  its  dilt'erent  properties  ;  and  that 
it  sometimes  calls  m  the  help  of  the  auxiliary  verbs. 


Be. 


Present. 
Be, 
Move, 
Take, 


Move. 

Principal  Parts. 

Preterit,  or  Past. 
was, 
moved, 
took, 


Take. 


Perfect  Participle. 
been, 
moved, 
taken. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


ABSOLUTE   TENSES. 


Present  Tense. 


{Singular. 

Phcral. 

First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

Ut  Pers. 

2d  Pers. 

Bd  Pers. 

I 

You            He,  She,  or  It, 

We 

You 

They 

am, 

are. 

is; 

are. 

are, 

are. 

a 

move, 

move, 

moves ; 

move, 

move. 

move. 

K 

do  move, 

do  move. 

does  move ; 

do  move. 

do  move. 

do  move. 

Pr 

.  am  moving, 

are  moving. 

is  moving ; 

are  moving, 

are  moving. 

are  moving. 

P. 

am  moved, 

are  moved. 

is  moved ; 

are  moved. 

are  moved. 

are  moved. 

c 

take, 

take, 

takes ; 

take. 

take, 

take. 

M. 

do  take. 

do  take, 

does  take ; 

do  take, 

do  take, 

do  take. 

Pr 

.  am  taking, 

are  taking, 

is  taking ; 

are  taking. 

are  taking, 

are  taking. 

P. 

am  taken, 

are  taken, 

is  taken ; 

are  taken. 

are  taken. 

are  taken. 

*  Since  love  can  not  be  used  in  the  progressive  form,  and  is  objectionable  also  for  other  reasons, 
move  has  been  preferred.  It  is  very  difficult  to  find  a  suitable  verb.  Tho  next  b»6t  that  occur  to 
me,  arorow,  call,  ti>7id,  aid,rule. 


VERBS. 


25 


dingular. 


2. 
You 


Past  Tense. 


He,  She,  or  It, 


C.    moved,  moved,  moved; 

E.    did  move,  did  move,  did  move  ; 

Fr.  was  moving,  were  moving,  was  moving ; 

P.   was  moved,  were  moved,  was  moved ; 

C.    took,  took,  took; 

K    did  take,  did  take,  did  take ; 

Pr.  was  taking,  were  taking,  was  taking  ; 

P.   was  taken,  were  taken,  was  taken ; 


1. 
We 
were, 
moved, 
did  move, 
were  moving, 
were  moved, 
took, 
did  take, 
were  taking, 
were  taken, 


2. 
You 


(Imperfect.) 


Plwral. 


They 


were,  were, 

moved,  moved, 

did  move,        did  move, 
were  moving,  weie  moving, 
were  moved,  were  moved, 
took,  took, 

did  take,  did  take, 

were  taking,   wore  taking, 
were  taken,     were  taken. 


Singular. 


be, 
C.    move, 
Pr.  be  moving, 
P.    be  moved, 
C.    take, 
Pr.  be  taking, 
P.    be  taken, 


2, 

You 

be, 

move, 

be  moving, 

be  moved, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 


Future  Tense. 

3.  1. 

He,  She,  or  It,  We 
shall  or  wiU — 

be ;  be, 
move; 
,      be  moving 
be  moved ; 


be  taking ; 
be  taken ; 


move, 

be  moving, 

be  moved, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken. 


You 


(First-Future.) 
Plural. 
3. 
They 


be, 

move, 

be  moving, 

be  moved, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken. 


be. 

move. 

be  moving. 

be  moved. 

take. 

be  taking. 

be  taken. 


RELATIVE    TENSES. 

Perfect  Tense. 


singular. 


Plural. 


I 

You 

have — 

haver— 

been, 

been. 

moved. 

moved, 

3. 


He,  She,  or  It, 

has — 

been; 

moved; 
Pr.  been  moving,  been  nioving,  been  moving ;  been  moving, 
P.    been  moved,  been  moved,    been  moved ;  been  moved, 
G.    taken,  taken,  taken ;  taken, 

Pr.  been  taking,    been  taking,    been  taking ;    been  taking, 
P.   been  taken,     been  taken,     been  taken  ;     been  taken. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

We 

You 

They 

have — 

have— 

have — 

been. 

been. 

been. 

moved. 

moved. 

moved. 

been  moving,  been  moving, 
been  moved,  been  moved, 
taken,  taken, 

been  taking,  •  been  taking, 
been  taken,     been  taken. 


Singular. 
1.  2. 

[  You 


Pluperfect  Tense. 

3.  1. 


Plural. 


He,  She,  or  It,      We 
had — 
been,  been,  been ;  been, 

C.    moved,  moved,  moved ; 

Pr.  been  moving,  been  moving,  been  moving 
P.    been  moved,   been  moved,  been  moved ; 

0.  taken,  taken,  taken ; 
Pr.  been  taking,    been  taking,    been  taking  ; 

1.  hena  taken,     been  taken,     been  taken; 


You 


moved, 
been  moving, 


been, 
moved, 
been  moving, 


been  moved,  been  moved, 
taken,  taken, 

been  taking,    been  taking, 
been  taken,      Deen  taken. 


They 

been, 
moved, 
been  moving, 
been  moved, 
taken, 
been  taking, 
bean  taken. 


VERBS. 


Singular. 


Future-perfect  Tense. 

2.  8.  1. 

YoD  He,  She,  or  It,     We 

shall  or  will  have — 

been,  been ;  been, 

C.    moved,     _       moved,  moved ;  moved, 

Pr.  been  moving,  been  moving,  been  moving  ;  been  moving, 
P.  been  moved,  been  moved,  been  moved  ;  been  moved, 
G.    taken,  taken,  taken ;  taken, 

I*r.  been  taking,  been  taking,  been  taking  ;  been  taking, 
P.    been  taken,     been  taken,     been  taken  ;     been  taken, 


(Seoond-Futube.) 

Pliirnl. 
2.  3. 

You  Thet 

been,  been, 

moved,  moved, 

been  moving,  been  moving 

been  moved,  been  moved, 

taken,  taken, 

been  taking,  been  taking, 

been  taken,  been  taken. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 


Singular. 


Present  Tense. 


1. 

If  I 
be, 
move, 
do  move, 
be  moving, 
be  moved. 


take, 

do  take, 
Pr.  be  taking, 
P.    be  taken, 


2. 

If  you 

be, 
move, 
do  move, 
be  moving, 
be  moved, 
take, 
do  take, 
be  taking, 
be  taken. 


3. 

If  he,  she,  or  rr, 
be; 
move ; 
do  move ; 
be  moving ; 
be  moved ; 
take ; 
do  take ; 
be  taking ; 
be  taken ; 


Singular. 


1. 

If  we 
be, 

move, 
do  move, 
be  moving, 
be  moved, 
take, 
do  take, 
be  taking, 
be  taken, 

Past  or  Aorist  Tense. 


Plural. 
2.  3. 

If  you  If  they 

be,  be. 


move, 
do  move, 
be  moving, 
be  moved, 
take, 
do  take, 
be  taking, 
be  taken, 


move, 
do  move, 
be  moving, 
bo  moved, 
take, 
do  take, 
be  taking, 
be  taken. 


1. 
If  I 

were, 
C.    moved, 
K    did  move, 
Pr.  were  moving, 
P.    were  moved, 
G.    took, 
K    did  take, 
Pr.  were  taking, 
P.    were  taken' 


2. 
If  you     If 
were, 
moved, 
did  move, 
were  moving 
were  moved, 
took, 
did  take, 
were  taking, 
were  talteii. 


(Imperfect.) 

Plural. 


HE,  she,  or  IT, 

were; 

moved ; 

did  move ; 
,  were  moving ; 

were  moved ; 

took; 

did  take ; 

were  takmg ; 

were  taken : 


1. 

If  we 


moved, 
did  move, 
were  moving, 
were  moved, 
took, 
did  take, 
were  taking, 
were  taken. 


If  you 
were, 
moved, 
did  move, 
were  moving, 
were  moved, 
took, 
did  take, 
were  takincr, 
were  taken, 


If  they 
were, 
moved, 
did  move, 
were  movmg. 
were  moved, 
took, 
did  take, 
were  taking, 
were  taken. 


1. 
If  I 


Singular. 


Pluperfect  Tense. 


Plural. 


2.  3.  1. 

If  you      If  he,  she,  or  rr,     If  wf 
had — 


2. 
If  YOU 


If  they 


been,  been, 

G.    moved,  moved, 

Pr.  been  moving,  been  moving 
P.  been  moved,  been  moved, 
G.    taken,  taken, 

Pr.  been  taking,    been  taking, 
P.    been  taken,     been  taken, 
"We  can  also  say,  "  Were  I," 
for,  "If  I  were,"  "Iflhadbej 


been ;  been,  been,  been. 

moved ;  moved,  moved,  moved. 

,  been  moving ;  been  moving,  been  moving,  been  moving. 

been  moved  ;  been  moved,   been  moved,    been  moved. 

taken ;  taken,  taken,  taken. 

been  taking ;     been  talcing,    been  taking,    been  taking. 

been  taken;     been  taken,     been  taken^     been  take q. 
"  Had  I  been,"  "  Bo  it  ever  so  fine,  I  would  not  buv  It ;" 
n,"  "Though  it  bo  ever  so  fine,  I  would  not  buy  it." 


VERBS. 


27 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 


Singula 
1. 
I 

2. 
You 

3. 
Hk,  She,  or  It, 

1. 

We 

Fl 
2. 
You 

urai. 
3. 
They 

be, 

be, 

may,  can,  or  miist — 
be;                  be, 

be, 

be. 

c. 

Pr 
I'. 
G. 
Fr 
P 

move, 

be  moving, 

be  moved, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

move, 

be  moving 

be  moved, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken. 

move ; 
,     be  moving  ; 
be  moved ; 
take; 
be  taking ; 
be  taken ; 

move, 

be  moving, 

be  moved, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken. 

move, 

be  moving, 

be  moved, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken. 

move. 

be  moving. 

be  moved. 

take. 

be  taking. 

be  taken. 

Singula/ 

Past  or  Aorist  Tense. 

(Imperfect.) 

Plural. 

be, 
i7.     move, 
Pr.  be  moving, 
P.    be  movetf, 
O.    take, 
Pr.  be  taking, 
P.    be  taken. 


2. 
You 


be, 


3.  1.  2. 

iiE,  She,  or  It,     We  You 

might,  could,  would,  or  should — 


move, 

be  moving, 

be  moved, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken. 


be ; 

move ; 

be  moving ; 

be  moved ; 

take; 

be  taking ; 

be  taken ; 


be, 


be. 


They 


be. 


Singular. 


1. 


2. 
You 


move, 

move, 

move. 

be  moving, 
be  moved, 

be  moving, 
be  moved. 

be  moving, 
be  moved. 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

take, 

be  talcing, 

be  taken. 

take. 

be  taking. 

be  taken. 

'ense. 

Plural 

1. 

2. 

3. 

We 

You 

Thet 

ust  have — 

been. 

been, 

been. 

moved. 

moved. 

moved. 

He,  She,  or  It, 
may,  can,  or  - 
been,  been,  been ; 

o'.    moved,  moved,  moved ; 

J'r.  been  moving,  been  moving,  been  moviner ;  been  moving,  been  moving,  been  moving, 
/'.  been  moved,  been  moved,  been  movecf ;  been  moved,  been  moved,  been  moved. 
C    taken,  taken,  taken;  taken,  taken,  taken. 

Pr.  been  taking,    been  taking,    been  taking ;    been  taking,   been  taking,    been  taking. 
P.    been  taken,     been  taken,     been  taken; 


been  taken,    been  taken,     been  taken. 


Singular. 


been, 
C.    movec 


You 


been, 
moved, 


Pluperfect  Tense. 


Plural. 


3.  1.  2. 

He,  She,  or  It,     We  You 

',  could,  would,  or  should  have — 
been ;  been,  been, 

moved ;  moved,  moved, 


Thet 

been, 
moved. 


Pr.  been  moving,  been  moving,  been  moving  ;  been  moving,  been  moving,  been  moving. 
P  been  moved,  been  moved,  been  moved ;  been  moved,  been  moved,  been  nioved, 
0.    taken,  taken,  taken;  taken,  taken,  taken. 

Pr.  been  taking,    been  taking,    been  taking ;    been  taking,  been  taking,   been  taking, 
P     been  taken,     been  taken,     been  taken";     been  taken,     been  taken,     been  taken. 


28  VERBS. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.  2. 

G.    Bo,  ar  be  thou  ;  be,  or  be  ye. 

E.     Do  be,  or  do  thou  be  ;  do  be,  or  do  ye  be. 

G.    Move,  or  move  thou  ;  move,  or  move  ye. 

E.    Do  move,  or  do  thou  move  ;  do  move,  or  do  ye  move. 

Pr.  Be  moving,  or  be  thou  moving  ;  be  moving,  or  be  ye  moving. 

P.    Be  moved,  or  be  thou  moved ;  be  moved,  or  be  ye  moved. 

G.     Take,  or  take  thou  ;  take,  or  take  ye. 

E.  Do  take,  or  do  thou  take  ;  do  take,  or  do  ye  take. 
Pr.  Be  taking,  or  be  thou  taking ;  be  taking,  or  be  ye  taking. 
P.    Be  taken,  or  be  thou  taken  ;  be  taken,  or  be  ye  taken. 

You  is  used  in  the  singular,  as  well  as  thou  ;  and  in  the  plural  it  is  quite  as  commou 
as  ye.  When  the  imperative  is  to  denote  gentleness  and  entreaty  ratlier  than  harshnesji 
and  authority,  you  is  perhaps  preferable  to  thou. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 
Present  Infinitive.  Perfect  Infinitive. 

To  be.  To  have  been. 

G.    To  move.  To  have  moved. 

Pr.  To  be  moving.  To  have  been  moving. 

P.    To  be  moved.  To  have  been  moved. 

G.    To  take .  To  have  taken. 

Pr.  To  be  taking.  To  have  been  taking. 

P.    To  be  taken.  To  have  been  taken. 

Present  Participle.  Perfect  Participle. 

Being.  Been. 

Moving.  Moved. 

Taking.  Taken. 

Compound  Participle. 

Neuter.   Having  been. 
Passive.  Being  moved. 
Active.    Having  moved. 
Passive.  Having  been  moved. 
Passive.  Being  taken. 
Active.    Having  taken. 
Passive.  Having  been  taken. 
To.  the  sign  of  the  infinitives,  is  omitted  after  lid^  make^  need,  hear^  \  let^  see,  feel,  and 
dctre^  in  the  active  voice. 

ANCIENT  FOBM,  OR  SOLEMN  STYLE.— THOU. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present.  Past.        Future.  Perfect.  Pluperfect.Future-perfect. 

Tiiou               Thou                Thou  Thou  Thou  Tnou 

shalt  or  wilt —  hast —  hadst —  ehalt  or  wilt  /cave — 

art ;                 wast,  or  wert ;  be  ,  been  ;  been  ;  been  ; 

G.    movest,            movedst,         move,  moved,  moved,  moved, 

F.  dost  move,       didst  move, 

Pr.  art  moving,  wast  moving,  be  moving,  been  moving,  been  moving,  been  moving, 

P.    art  moved  ;  wast  moved  ;  be  moved  ;  been  moved  ;  been  moved ;  been  moved ; 

G.  takest,  tookst,  take,  taken,  taken,  taken, 
E.    dost  take,  didst  take, 

Pr.  art  taking,       wast  taking,    be  taking     been  taking,   been  taking,   been  taking, 
P.    art  taken.        wast  taken,     be  taken,     been  taken,     been  taken,     been  taken. 


29 


Present. 

Iv  THOU 

be ; 
C    move, 
^.    do  move, 
J^r.  be  moving 
T.    be  moved ; 
C.    take, 
^    do  take, 
J* '.  be  taking, 
2\    be  taken. 


We  can  also  say, 
*  Hadst  thou  moved , 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Past  or  Aorist. 

Pluperfect. 

If  thou 

If  thou 

Aadst^ 

wert,  or  were ; 

been; 

moved, 

moved, 

did  move,  or  didst  move, 

wert  moving. 

been  moving, 

wert  moved ; 

been  moved ; 

took, 

taken, 

did  take,  or  didst  take, 

wert  taking. 

been  taking, 

wert  taken. 

been  taken. 

Wert  thou,"  "  Wert  thou  moved,"   "  Hadst  thou  been," 
for,  "  If  thou  wert,"  *'  If  thou  hadst  been,"  etc.  * 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 


Present. 

Past 

or  Aorist. 

Perfect. 

Pluperfect. 

Thou 

Thou 

Thou 

Thou 

mai/si,  canst^ 

migUst,  couldst, 

mayst^  canst^ 

mightsL  couUst,  vmddsU 
or  shouUst  Kj,v6— 

or  mvst —        wouliht 

or  shouldst — 

or  must  have — 

be; 

be; 

been; 

been; 

G.    move. 

move. 

moved. 

moved. 

Pr,  be  moving 

be  moving. 

been  moving. 

been  moving, 

P.     be  moved ; 

be  moved ; 

been  moved ; 

been  moved; 

a    take, 

take, 

taken, 

taken, 

Pr,  betaking, 

be  taking, 

been  taking. 

been  takirg, 

P.    betaken. 

be  taken. 

been  taken. 

been  taken. 

The  Ancient  Form  has  the  ending  eth,  in  stead  of  s  or  en,  in  the  third  person 
singular  ;  and  ye  in  stead  of  you,  in  the  second  person  plural. 

Ex. — "Who  chooseth  me  must  give  and  hazard  all  he  liathy — Shakespeare.  "  Ye 
are  the  salt  of  the  earth."— Jf^Z/Ze. 

Doth  is  used  for  the  auxiliary  does,  and  doeth  for  the  verb  does.  Hath  and  saith 
are  contractions  of  haveth  and  sayeth. 

How  many  aud  what  tenses  has  the  indicative  mood? — the  subjunctive  f — the  potential  f 
—the  imperati've  f    What  participles  are  there  ?— what  infinitives  f 

In  what  mood  and  tense  do  you  find  do  t — did  f — have  ? — had  f— shall  or  tvill  t — sMll  or 
will  have? — inay,  can,  or  must? — ma]/,  can,  or  must  have? — might,  could,  would,  or  should? 
— might,  could,  would,  or  should  liave  f 

Does  the  subjunctive  mood  vary  in  its  forms,  through  the  different  persons  and  numbers  ? 
Can  you  show  how  some  of  its  forms  differ  from  the  corresponding  forms  of  the  indicative 
mood  ? 

Tell  of  what  mood  and  tense ;  then  conjugate  throughout  the  tense,  beginning  with  the 
first  person  singular: — 

I  ima^;-ine.  He  suffered.  We  have  gained.  I  had  been  ploughing.  I  will  visit. 
Were  I.  Had  I  been.  If  he  were.  Were  1  invited.  Had  I  been  invited.  If  I  bo 
invited.  They  shall  have  finished.  I  lay.  We  read.  It  may  pass.  You  should 
have  come.  XVe  may  have  been  robbed.  I  was  speaking.  It  is  rising.  You 
might  be  prepai-ing.  She  had  been  singinsr.  Had  you  been  studying.  Do  you 
hope  ?  Did  she  smile  ?  If  I  do  fall.  If  thou  rely.  Thou  art.  Art  thou  ?  He 
forgiveth.  Dost  thou  not  forgive  ?  It  must  have  happened.  They  are  gone.  Thou 
art  going.    We  were  proceeding. 

Predicate  each  of  the  following  verbs  correctly  of  thoit  ;  then  of  he,  and  of  thky  :— 

Am,  was,  have  been,  would  have  been,  are  deceived,  had  been,  do  say,  did 
maintain,  gave,  touched,  cast,  amass,  recommend,  be  discouraged,  shall  have  been, 
will  pardon,  may  have  been  rejoicing,  was  elected,  should  have  been  elected, 
wrapped,  consider,  considered,  have  been  loitering:, 


30  ADVERBS. 

Change  into  the  ether  tenses  of  the  same  mood : — 

I  write,  I  unxy  write,  If  I  write,  If  I  be  writing,  To  write. 

Give  the  synojtsis  of  the  verb  be,  with  the  nominative  I ; — with  tou  ; — thott  ; — he  ;— w« 

— TUEY  ; — THE  MAN  ;  — THE  MEN. 

In  like  manner  give  the  synopsis  of  each  of  the  following  verbs : — 
Bind,  arrest,  liave,  do,  be  known,  be  proved,  be  conversing. 
Give  THOU  with  each  aucsilianj  except  be  and  its  variations ; — give  nE. 

6.  ADVERBS. 

If  I  eay,  "He  reasons  correctly,  B-pesiks  Jluentli/,  and  jiersuades  earnestl// '^^ 
"Walk  np,  walk  doiv?i,,  walk  i/i,  walk  out,  walk  slowly,  walk  »oi;"  '■'■Very  tall, 
horribly  ugly,  sternly  inc^uisitive,  suiyrisingly  abrupt,,  moj^e  ingenious,  most  elo- 
quent, very  powet fully,  quite  fast  f  you  see  that  the  Italicized  words  tell  Jioio,  when, 
where,  or  to  what  degree,  a  thing  is  done  ;  also  how  or  in  what  degree  a  quality  or 
property  exists ;  and  being  most  generally  applied  or  added  to  oerbs,  they  are 
called  adverbs. 

What  is  an  adverb  f 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.       See  above. 

Some  entire  phrases,  as  long  ago,  in  vain,  to  and  fro,  by  and  hy,  the  more,  the 
less,  sooner  or  later,  are  generally  used  as  adverbs,  and  called  adverbial  phrases. 
Perhaps  they  may  as  well  be  called  simply  adverbs. 

We  have  said  that  adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs;  but  what  other  parts 
do  they  sometimes  modify  ? 

Phrases,  entire  sentences,  and  sometimes  perhaps  nouns  or 
pronouns. 

Ex. — "  He  sailed  neakly  round  the  world.'''*  "  The  murdered  traveller's  bop.es 
were  found  fab  down  a  narrow  glen.'''' — Bryant.  "  Do  you  knoxo  him  ? — N'o."  ''  Can 
you  not  go  ?"  "  Can  not  you  go  ?"  "  The  immortality  of  the  soul  has  been  evinced 
to  almost  a  DEMONSTiiATioN." — Addison.     "  And  the  kajie  hereof  went  abroad." — 


Whether  an  adverb,  as  such,  may  ever  be  said  to  modify  a  substantive,  is  questionable. 
But  there  is  a  ditference,  for  instance,  between  "  Can  you  not  go?"  and  "  Can  not  you  5^0  '•" 
And  somotimes  tlio  adverb  seems  to  relate  to  the  verb  lurking  in  the  noun.  Perhaps  it  is 
best  to  parse  such  words,  sometimes  as  adjectives,  and  soinetiint'S  as  adverbs  modifyiay  the 
VERB  with  reference  to  the  subject,  the  object,  the  adjunct,  or  whatever  part  is  affeded. 

If  adverbs  describe  or  limit  as  well  as  adjectives,  can  they  also  be  compared  ? 

Yes. 

How  do  they  differ  from  adjectives  in  comparison  ? 

A  smaller  portion  of  them  can  be  compared  ;  and  they  are 
more  frequently  compared  by  more  and  7nost. 

Ex. — Thus,  v*'e  can  say,  '■'■Slow,  slower,  slowest  1  lively,  livelier,  livellest''\-  but 
we  must  say,  "  So,  moi'e  so,  most  so  ;  iv'isely,  m,are  Wisely,  m/)st  wisely?'' 

What  do  most  adverbs  express  ? 

Manner,  Place,  Time,  or  Degree. 

Ex. — Elegantly,  well,  merrily,  gayly ;  here,  there;  now,  then;  very,  more, 
most. 

List  of  Adverbs. 

BinpB  it  is  not  vjnfrequently  difScult  to  determine  whether  a  given  word  is  ar 
adverb  or  not,  or  to  what  class  of  adverbs  it  should  be  referred,  a  full  catalogue  is 


ADVERBS.  3 1 

given  below,  wliich  must  be  carefaUy  and  thoronghly  studied.  The  classiflcation, 
too,  is  more  minnte  than  it  usually  is ;  because  it  is  supposed  that  the  nature  and 
various  powers  of  the  adverbs  may  be  better  learned  by  this  means. 

Manner,  Mode,  or     Quality.     ITow? 

So,  thus,  well,  ill,  how,  wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  slowly,  somehow,  anyhow, 
'lowever,  howsoever,  otherwise,  else,  likewise,  like,  alike,  as,  extempore ,  head- 
■01112:,  lengthwise,  crosswise,  across,  aslant,  astride,  astraddle,  adrift,  amain,  afloat, 
apace,  apart,  asunder,  amiss,  anew,  fast,  together,  separately,  aloud,  accordingly, 
agreeably,  necessarily,  in  vain,  in  brief,  at  oacc,  in  sliort,  foot  by  foot,  so  so,  so 
and  so,  helter-skelter,  hurry-skurry,  namely,  suddenly,  silently,  feelingly,  sur- 
prisingly, touehingly,  trippingly,  lovingly,  hurriedly,  mournfully,  sweetly,  propor- 
tioually,"  exactly,  heavily,  lightly;  and  mauy  others  ending  in  ly^  and  formed  from 
adjectives  or  present  participles. 

Place.      W7iere  ?     Whence  ?     Whither  ? 

Of  place  aUolute:  Here,  there,  yonder,  where,  everywhere,  somewhere,  uni- 
versally, nowhere,  wherever,  wheresoever,  anywhere,  herein,  therein,  wherein, 
hereabouts,  thereabouts,  whereabouts,  hereabout,  thereabout,  abed,  aground,  on 
high,  all  over,  here  and  there. 

Of  place  rechoned  YRoi^  some  point:  "Whence,  hence,  thence,  elsewhere,  other- 
Avhere,  away,  far,  afor,  far  off,  out,  remotely,  abroad,  above,  forth,  below,  ahead, 
aloof,  outwards,  about,  around,  beneath,  before,  behhid,  over,  under,  within,  with- 
out, from  within,  from  without. 

Of  place  reckoned  to  some  point:  Whither,  thither,  hither,  in,  up,  down,  up- 
warrls,  downwards,  inwards,  backwards,  forwards,  hitherward,  thitherward,  home- 
ward, aside,  ashore,  afield,  aloft,  aboard,  aground,  nigh. — The  forms  upward^ 
downward^  backward,  &c.,  are  also  used  as  adverbs. 

Of  order:  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  &c.,  next,  lastly,  finally,  at  last,  in  fine. 

Time.  When  ?  How  long  ?  Hoio  often  ?  How  soon  ?  How 
long  ago  ? 

Of  time  absolute:  Ever,  never,  always,  eternally,  perpetually,  continually,  con- 
stantly, endlessly,  forever,  incessantly,  everlastingly,  evermore,  aye. 

Of  time  relative,  i.  e.,  reckoned  with,  to,  or  from  some  other  time:  When,  when- 
ever, then,,  meanwhile,  meantime,  as,  while,  whilst,  till,  until,  otherwhile,  after, 
afterward,  afterwards,  subsequently,  before,  late,  early,  betimes,  seasonably. 

Of  time  repeated :  Again,  often,  oft,  oftentimes,  sometimes,  occasionally,  sel- 
dom, rarely,  frequently,  now  and  then,  ever  and  anon,  daily,  weekly,  hourly, 
monthly,  yearly,  annually,  anew,  once,  twice,  thrice,  four  times,  etc. 

Of  time  present :  Now,  to-day,  nowadays,  at  present,  yet  (=heretofore  and 
now),  as  yet. 

Of  time  past:  Yesterday,  heretofore,  rece"ntly,  lately,  of  late,  already,  for- 
merly, just  now,  just,  anciently,  since,  hitherto,  long  since,  long  ago,  ere  while, 
till  now. 

Of  tim^  future :  Hereafter,  henceforth,  henceforward,  saon,  to-morrow,  shortly, 
erelong,  by  and  by,  presently,  instantly,  immediately,  straightway,  straightways, 
directly,  forthwith,  not  yet,  anon. 

Degree.     Hou^  much?     How  little?     To  ivhat  extent ? 

Adverbs  of  degree  are  not  easily  classified  ;  for  adverbs  from  several  other  classes  may 
sometimes  be  used  to  express  degree.  The  following  adverbs,  to  the  dash-line,  are  not  all 
strictly  adverbs  of  degree. 

Adverbs  showing  how  much,  to  what  extent,  or  in  what  degree :  Much,  more,  most, 
greatly,  far,  furtlier,  very,  too,  little,  less,  least,  extra,  mostly,  entirely,  chiefly, 
principally,  mainly,  generally,  commonly,  usually,  in  general,  fully,  full,  com- 
pletely, totally,  wholly,  perfectly,  all,  altogether,  quite,  exceedingly,  extravagantly, 
nximeasurably,  immensely,  excessively,  boundlessly,  infinitely,  iuconceivably,  clear, 
stark,  nearly,  well-nigh,  partly,  partially,  intensely,  scarcely,  scantily,  precisely 
enough,  exactly,  even,  everso,  just,  equally,  sufiBciently,  adequately,  proportion- 
ately, competently,  as,  so,  how,  however,  howsoever,  somewhat,  a"-,  all. 


•32  PRKPOS[TIONS. 

Of  exclusion  yr  emphasis:  Merely,  only,  but,  alone,  simply,  barely,  just,  particu- 
larly, especially,  in  particular. 

Adverbs  imflying  sometliing  additional  to  what  has  been  mentioned,  or  something 
beyond  what  might  be  expected :  Also,  besides,  else,  still,  yet,  too,  likewise,  -withal, 
moreover,  furthermore,  however,  extra,  eke,  even,  nevertheless,  anyhow. 


Adverbs  implying  cause  or  means  :  Why,  wherefore,  therefore,  hence,  thence, 
consequently,  accordingly,  whereby,  hereby,  thereby. 

Of  negation :  Not,  nay,  no,  nowise,  noway,  noways,  by  no  means. 

Of  affirmation  or  admittance :  Truly,  doubtless,  undoubtedly,  unquestionably, 
forsooth,  indeed,  well,  very  well,  well  tnen,  yes,  yea,  ay,  verUy,  surely,  certainly, 
really,  assuredly,  certes,  amen,  of  course,  to  be  sure. 

Of  doubt  or  uncertainty :  Perhaps,  probably,  possibly,  perchance,  peradvent- 
ure,  haply,  mayhap,  may-be. 

The  adverbs  of  the  last  three  classes  are  sometimes  termed  modal  adverbs. 
They  are  said  to  show  "the  manner  of  the  assertion."  They  have  a  more  direct 
reference  to  the  mind  of  the  speaker  than  the  others  have.  We  may  deny  or  re- 
fuse, hesitate,  consent ;  disbelieve,  doubt,  believe ;  pass  from  strong  negation 
through  doubt  into  strong  positive  assertion,  and  vice  versa. 

Expletive  Advkbbs.  These  serve  merely  to  begin  sentences,  in  order  to  render  them 
less  blunt  or  more  sprightly  ;  as,  There,  well,  why. 

Conjunctive  Adverbs.  These  connect  as  well  as  modify.  They  are  usually  ad- 
verbs of  time,  place,  or  manner  ;  as.  When,  where,  while,  till,  as,  etc. 

Interrogative  Adverbs.  These  are  those  adverbs  of  the  foregoing  classes,  which 
are  used  to  ask  questions  ;  as.  What  ?  where  ?  how  ?  whither  ? 

From  the  foregoing  list,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  same  word  may  sometimea 
be  referred  to  one  class  of  adverbs,  and  sometimes  to  another,  according  to  its 
meaning. 

Ex. — " I  have  JMst  come."  {Time.)  "It  is  jwsi  full;"  i.  e.,  neither  more  nor  less. 
{Extent  or  degree.) 

It  is  supposed  that  the  student,  after  having  carefully  studied  the  foregoing 
catalogue,  will  be  able  to  refer  any  adverb  not  in  it  to  its  proper  class.  In  parsing, 
when  an  adverb  can  not  be  easily  referred  to  some  special  class,  it  may  be  more 
convenient  to  refer  it  to  the  general  class  to  which  it  belongs, — to  call  it  simply  an 
adverb  of  manner,  place,  time,  or  degree. 

Will  you  mention  si,x  adverbs  of  manner  f — three  of  place  where  f — three  of  place 
whence  t— three  of  place  whither  f — three  of  order  f — three  of  time  absolute  t — three  of  tivi^ 
relative  f —three  of  time  rejyeated  f— three  of  time  present? — three  of  time  past? — three  of 
time  future? — six  of  degree? —three  implying  exclusion? — three  implying  something  addi- 
tional ? — three  of  cause  ? — three  of  negation  ? — three  of  affirmation  ?— three  of  doubt  ?— three 
expletive  adverbs  ? — six  conjunctive  adverbs  ? — one  interrogative  adverb  of  manner,  one  of 
place,  and  one  of  time  ? — sis  adverbial  phrases  ? 

7.  PREPOSITIONS. 

When  I  say,  "  The  horses  are  in  the  ferry-boat,  the  ferry-boat  is  on  the  river, 
and  the  river  is  between  the  hills  ;  you  see  that  the  words  in,  on,  and  between,  show 
how  different  objects  are  to  one  another.  They  are  called  prepositions  ;  for  the 
word  means  placing  before,  and  these  little  words  must  generally  be  placed  before 
nouns,  to  make  the  nouns  capable  of  being  used  as  descriptive  words. 

What  is  a  jtreposition  ? 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation  be- 
tween different  things. 

Ex. — In,  on,  under,  above,  over,  around,  at,  from,  to,  through. 

Two  prepositions  are  sometimes  combined,  and  some  phrases  are  constantly 
ased  in  the  sense  of  prepositions.  Tiie  former  expressions  may  be  called  complex 
prepositions;  the  latter,  prepositional  phrases  ;  or  both  may  be  termed  simply  pre- 
positions.     See  the  List. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


33 


What  does  a  preposition  usually  join  to  some  other  word  or  part  of  the  sentence? 

A  substantive  denoting  the  place,  time,  doer,  possessor, 
cause,  source,  means,  manner,  or  some  other  circumstance. 

Ex. — "The  apples  hang  on  the  tree.''''  "  We  have  snow  in  winter.''''  "He 
was  stabbed  by  a  'voiurdeer^  with  the  sword  of  a  Kentuck'ian,.^''  "  To  write  with 
mse  and  rapidity.'''' 

What  is  an  adjunct  t 

An  adjunct  is  a  preposition  with  its  object,  or  with  the 
words  required  after  it  to  complete  the  sense.       See  above. 

Is  the  preposition  always  expressed  ? 

It  is  sometimes  understood. 

Ex. — "  Give  him  his  book"==Give  his  book  to  him.  "  I  stood  near  him"  I 
Htood  near  to  him.     "  He  is  like  his  father"  =-Ho  is  like  to  or  unto  his  father. 


List  of  Prepositions. 


A, 

bating. 

ere, 

respecting. 

up. 

atwetju, 

aboard. 

before, 
behind, 

except. 

round. 

upon. 

atwixt, 

about. 

excepting, 

save. 

versus. 

cross. 

above. 

below, 

for. 

saving. 

withj 
withm. 

dehors, 

across, 

beneath, 

from. 

since. 

inside. 

after, 

beside,    ) 
besides,  S 

in. 

through. 

without 

maugre, 

against. 

into. 

throughout. 

minus. 

along, 
amid,      ) 
an^dst,  j 

between, 
betwixt, 

notwith- 
standing, 

till, 
to, 

N„TCo..o.v.-«^ 

beyond, 

of. 

touching. 

Abaft, 

sans, 

among, 
amongst. 

but, 

off. 

toward, 

towards. 

adown. 

than. 

by, 

on, 

afore. 

tliorough, 

around, 

concerning,    over, 

under, 

aloft, 

via. 

aslant, 

despite. 

past. 

underneath, 

alongside,       withal, 

athwart, 

down. 

pending. 

until. 

aloo^ 

withinside. 

during, 
of, 

per, 

unto. 

aneath, 
pixt, 

Aboard 

as  to. 

from  betv 

from  out  of. 

according  to. 

because  of. 

from  beyond. 

from  under, 

along  with, 

from  among, 

from  off. 

out  of. 

aa  for. 

from  before. 

from  out. 

round  about. 

Can  you  repent  the  prepositions  that  begin  with  af— 

lf—c.f—df-ef—ff~it-^nt 

8.    CONJUNCTIONS. 

When  I  say,  "  John  and  James  write ;"  "  John  writes  and  ciphers  ;"  "  John 
writes  fast  and  well ;"  "  John  spilt  his  ink  on  the  desk  and  on  the  floor ;"  "  John 
writes  twice  every  day,  and  I  generally  look  at  his  writing:"  you  see  that  the  word 
and  brings  on  something  more  to  what  has  been  said,  or  joins  together  two  words, 
two  phrases,  or  two  propositions  ;  and  as  conjunction  means  joining  together,  thia 
word,  and  others  like  it,  have  been  called  conjunctions. 

What  definition,  then,  may  he  given  of  a  conjunction? 

A  coiijaanction  is  a  Avord  that  joins  something  to  an- 
other part  of  the  discourse,  and  shows  how  the  parts  so  con- 
nected are  viewed  with  respect  to  each  other. 

Ex. — "  Grain  will  b5  cheap,  and  perhaps  unsalable."  "  Grain  will  be  cheap. 
for  the  harvest  is  abundant."  "  Grain  will  be  cheap,  if  the  winter  continue  mild." 
'  Grain  will  be  cheap,  but  now  it  is  dear."  "  He  rides,  if  he  is  sick."  "  He  rides, 
thaugh  he  is  sick."     "  He  rides,  because  he  is  sick." 

3 


34  CONJUNCTIONS. 

Two  conjunctions  are  sometimes  combined,  and  certain  phrases  aro  sometimes 
used  in  the  sense  of  conjunctions  :  as,  "  His  health,  as  well  as  his  estate,  is  ruined  : 
and  yet  lie  still  persists  in  his  course."  The  former  expressions  may  be  calletl 
complex  conjunctions ;  and  the  lattor,  conjuruitlve  phrases ,'  or  both  may  be  termed 
simply  conjunctions. 

What  is  ii  coordinate  conjunction? 

A  cojiircliiiate  conjunction  connects  parts  of  equal  rank. 

Ex. — And,  but,  or.  "  The  woods  are  sprouting,  and  the  dove  is  cooing." 
ILtc  and  connects  clauses  which  do  not  depend  on  eaph  other,  and  therefore  they 
are  said  to  be  coordinate^  which  means  of  equal  rank. 

Wliat  is  a  subordinate  conjunction  ? 

A  subordinate  conjunction  connects  parts  of  unequal 
rank. 

Ex.— If,  that,  since',  because.  "  I  will  work  for  you,  if  you  pay  me.'"  Here 
if  connects  two  clauses,  of  which  one  depends  on  the  other,  and  therefore  the  de- 
pendent one  is  said  to  be  subordinate,  which  means  ranking  under. 

What  is  a  corresponding  or  correlative  conjunction  ? 

A  cora'cspouadlBBg'  conjunction  suggests  another  con- 
junction, and  assists  it  in  connecting  the  same  parts. 

Ex.— "I  will  neither  buy  nob  sell,"  '•'•Thoug'k  he  reproves  me,  yet  I  esteem 
him." 

Can  you  mention  tlie  chief  ideas  conveyed  by  the  diffarent  conjunctions  in  reference  to 
the  parts  connected  ? 

Addition,  separation,  contrariety,  cause,  consequence,  pur- 
pose, condition,  concession,  and  comparison. 

By  examining  the  beginning  of  this  section,  what  words  would  you  infer  may  be  con- 
nected by  conjunctions? 

Words  of  almost  any  part  of  speech. 

Where  are  conjunctions  mostly  used  ? 

In  connecting  the  parts  of  compound  sentences. 

Are  conjunctions  ever  understood? 

Sometimes  they  are  ;  and  other  words  are  generally  under- 
stood after  them. 

Ex. — "Kout,  [and]  ruin,  [and]  panic,  seized  them  all."  "I  knew  [that]  he 
had  lost  it."     "  You  may  first  read  this  sentence,  and  then  [you  may]  parse  it." 

How  may  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  be  distinguished,  or  what  is  the  chief 
characteristic  of  each  class  ? 

Of  the  adverb^  to  modify  or  limit ;  of  the  preposition,  to 
govern  a  substantive  in  the  objective  case ;  and  of  the  con- 
junction,  to  connect. 

Ex. — "He  took  iw^  one  apple."  "I  saw  all  but  him."  "I  saw  h'un,  but  he 
would  not  come.' ' 


List  of  Conjunctions. 


1.  Conjunctions  implying  continuance  oraddition,  simpli/  or  emphatically  :  And^ 
as  well  as,  again,  also,  besides,  both,  moreover,  furthermore^  even,  nay,  so  (="al3o). 
{Gopulatlve  conjunctions.) 

2.  Separation  or  choice :  Or,  nor,  either,  neither,  or  else.  {Alternative  or  dls" 
junctive  conjunctions.) 


INTERJKCTIOXS.  36 

8.  Contrariety^  restriction,  or  reservation:  But,  yet,  still,  however,  howsoever, 
nevertheless,  notwithstanding-,  unless  (=but  not . .  .  if),  except  that,  save.  {Ad- 
versative or  restrictive  conjunctions.) 

4.  Comparison:  llhan,  ii&.    {Comparative  conj unctions  ) 

5.  Concession:  Although,  though,  even  if,  even  though,  notwithstanding,  albeit. 
{Concessive  conjunctions.) 

6.  Condition  or  doubt :  If,  unless  (=ifnot),  whether,  provided,  provided  that, 
in  case  that,  so,  except,  lest.     {Conditional  or  contingent  conjunctions.) 

7.  Cause  or  reason:  Because,  for,  since,  as,  seeing,  inasmuch  as,  forasmuch  as, 
whereas.    (  Causal  conjunctions. ) 

8.  Consequence  or  inference:  Then,  so,  therefore,  wherefore.  {Illative  con- 
junctions.) 

9.  Purpose  or  motive.  That,  so  that,  in  order  that,  lest,  so  as. 


10.  Corresponding  conjunctions:  Either — or;  neither — nor;  whether — or;    if- 
then  ;  though,  or  although — yet ;  both — and  ;  as — ^so ;  as — as. 


Coniunctions  are  sometimes  accumulated,  or  take  adverbial  particles,  merely  to 
strengthen  or  to  modify  slightly  the  connection  between  the  parts.  Sometimes, 
phrases  even,  or  adverbial  particles,  may  be  treated  simply  as  conjunctions,  unless 
great  accuracy  is  required  ;  or  else  they  may  be  analyzed  more  rigidly  otherwise, 
especially  by  supplying  such  words  as  may  be  reasonably  supposed  to  have  been 
omitted. 

The  conjunctions  of  the  first  three  classes  are  chiefly  coordinate;  the  others,  to 
the  tenth  class,  subordinate.  The  former  rather  indicate  the  movements  and  turns 
of  thought ;  the  latter  subjoin  parts  that  are  used  more  or  less  in  the  sense  of 
parts  of  speech. 

Can  you  mention  two  copulative  conjunctions? — two  alternative?  (rass  thus  through 
.  the  List.) 

9.   INTERJECTIONS. 

In  every  language,  there  are  certain  words  used  when  the  mind  is  suddenly  ot 
greatly  excited,  in  order  to  give  vent  to  some  strong  feeling  or  sudden  emotion  ; 
as,  Oh!  alas!  These  words  ai'e  called  interjections,  a  word  that  means  thrown 
among  ;  for  they  are  so  loosely  combined  with  the  other  words  of  a  sentence,  that 
they  seem  thrown  among  them. 

What  is  an  interjection  ? 

An  isiierjectiona  is  a  word  that  expresses  an  emotion 
only,  and  is  not  connected  in  construction  with  any  other 
word. 

Ex.— Alas  1  fie!  O!  oh!  ah  I  hurrah!  hail!  .adieu  !  "  6>  Grave!  where  is 
thy  victory  ?"  *'  Tlioso  were  happy  days  ;  but,  alas  !  they  are  no  more  !"  '■'■Fshiw  ! 
never  mind  it." 

Where  are  interjections  most  frequently  found,  and  \7hat  may  aid  us  in  discovering  them  ? 

In  poetry  and  in  oratory  :  they  are  generally  followed  by 
the  exclamation-point. 

As  the  heart  is  susceptible  of  many  different  emotions  or  feelings,  the  interjec- 
tions may  be  divided  into  various  classes. 

List  of  Interjections. 

1.  Of  sorrow,  grief,  or  pity :  Oh!  alas!  ah!  alack!  hoo!  welladay  ! 

2.  Of  earnestneis  or  joy :  O!  eigb  !  hey!  eh!  ha! 

3.  Of  surmise,  wonder,  or  horror :  Ilah!  ha!  what!  h'ra !  height  8t  range  !  in 
deed!  hey-dey!  la!  wliow !  zounds!  eh!  ah!  oh!  hoity-toity! 


36  EXERCISES   ON   ALL 

4.  Of  contempt  or  aversion :  Pshaw !  pish !  tut !  tush !  poh  !  foh !  bah !  humph  1 
faugh  r whew!  off!  begone!  avaunt  I 

6.  Of  exultation  or  approlation :  Aha  !  ah  !  hey  !  huzzah  !  hurrah  !  good !  bravo'. 

6.  Of  attention  or  calling :  Ho!  lo!  behold!  look!  see!  hark!  la!  heigh-ho! 
soho  !  hollo  !  halloa  !  hoy  1  hold !  whoh !  halt !  'st ! 

7.  Of  silence :  Hush  !  hist !  whist !  'st !  aw  !  mum  1 

8.  Of  interrogating :  Eh?  hem,  or  h'm?    (The  opposite  of  the  preceding  class.) 

9.  Of  detection :  Aha  !  oho  !  ay-ay  ! 

10.  Of  laugJiter :  Ha,  ha,  ha !  he,  he,  he ! 

11.  Of  saluting  or  parting :  Welcome!  hail!  all -hail !  adieu!  good-by!  and  per- 
haps good-day  !  good-night !  good-morning  !  good-evening  ! 

It  is  difficult  to  make  a  satisfactory  classification  of  interjections.  Most  of  them 
are  used  with  great  latitude  of  meaning;  that  is,  in  various  senses.  When  the 
learner  meets  with  an  interjection,  it  is  perhaps  best  that  he  should  determine  its 
meaning  from  the  spirit  of  the  sentence  or  discourse. 


If  a  man  cultivates  the  earth,  he  may  be  styled  a  farmer;  if  the  same 
man  should  engage  in  the  business  of  buying  and  selling  goods,  a  merchant; 
if  in  preaching  the  gospel,  a  preacher :  even  so  the  same  vs^ord,  according 
to  its  use,  is  sometimes  of  one  part  of  speech,  and  sometimes  of  another. 

Ex.— "A  WacA;  horse ;"  "  To  Z>^ac/c  boots ;"  "  ^tocA  is  a  color." 

The  first  Mack  is  an  adjective  ;  the  second,  a  verb  ;  and  the  third,  a  noun. 

Can  you  mention  two  interjections  of  grief  f — two  of  joy  ?  (Pass  thus  through  the  List. 

10.  EXERCISES  ON  ALL  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  nouns,  and  why : — 

A  green  tree.  A  house  of  marble.  Laura  brought  a  fresh  rose.  The  farmer 
ploughs  his  field.  Love  and  fidelity  are  inseparable.  Pompey  being  vanquished, 
Csesar  returned  triumphant.to  Eome.  The  groves  were  God's  first  temples.  Col- 
onel Thomas  H.  Benton  died  in  the  year  1858. 

The  pear  and  quince  lay  squandered  on  the  grass ; 

The  mould  was  purple  with  unheeded  showers 
Of  bloomy  plums  ; — a  wilderness  it  was 

Of  fruits,  and  weeds,  and  flowers  ! — JTood. 

*'Tis  Heaven  itself  that  points  out  an  hereafter.  Place  me  on  Sunium's  marbled 
steep.  The  rich  man's  joys  increase  the  poor's  decay.  Learn  the  how  and  the 
why.  You  is  a  pronoun.  +  denotes  addition.  I  like  to  skate.  It  would  be  non- 
sense for  us  to  buy  it.  There  was  some  Indian  fighting  in  settling  this  country. 
Why  he  did  not  go,  is  obvious.  I  believe  that  the  people  of  a  republic  may  abuse 
their  liberty,  as  well  as  a  despot  his  power.     (Believe  what  ?) 

Whether  proper  or  common,  and  why : — 

Susan,  girl,  George,  boy,  Europe,  country,  day,  month,  Saturday,  September, 
hoUday,  Christmas,  river,  Mississijppi,  mountains,  Andes,  island,  Cuba,  bird,  black- 
bird, chain,  Jane,  Louis,  Louisa,  city.  New  York,  year,  1860.  General  Alexander 
Hamilton,  Montauk  Point,  *8oil,  hope,  soul,  poetry,  president,  Webster,  Mrs. 
Amelia  Welby,  Tliomson's  Seasons,  heaven,  earth,  sun,  stars.  Isabella  and  Fer- 
dinand, the  queen  and  king  of  Spain,  enabled  Columbus  to  discover  America. 
Prescott's  Conquest  of  Mexico  is  worth  a  careful  perusal.  The  Laurenses,  the 
Sumpters,  the  Itutledircs,  and  the  Marions, — Americans  all.  The  Bahamas  and 
the  Antilles.  And  Freedom  shrieked — as  Kosciusko  fell.  /  is  a  pronoun.  The 
l>ronominals  each,  every,  and  either.  The  clamor  of  most  politicians  is  but  an  et- 
lort  to  get  the  ins  out  and  the  outs  in. 

•  The  exercises  following  the  stars,  may  be  omitted  or  deferred.  When  able  to  cope  with 
them,  the  pupil  may  try  his  learning  and  ingenuity  upon  them ;  but  they  properly  belong  to 
Part  Second  of  a  book  having  the  foregoing  instructions  as  Part  First. 


THE   PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  %% 

Jell  whether  collective,  abstract,  or  material,  and  why  : — 

*Tribe,  nations,  anger,  pity,  caucus,  adversity,  sand,  navy,  extent,  party,  party- 
epirit,  bacon,  company,  wine,  snow,  coldness,  corn,  people,  law,  jury,  commerce, 
clergy,  science. 

The  pronouns,  and  why ;  what  kind,  and  why : — 

He  saw  me.  We  love  tliera.  She  deceived  herself.  Know  thyself.  When  a 
laudy  has  squandered  his  estate,  he  is  not  apt  to  regain  it.  The  lady  who  had  been 
■ek,  received  the  peaches  which  were  ripe.  This  is  the  same  marble  that  you 
i;ive  me,  and  it  is  the  best  that  I  have.  Who  came  ?  We  bought  only  such  mules 
lis  suited  us.  ( — the  mules  which — )  Love  what  is  worthy  ot  love.  ( — the  thing 
which-  ■)  *This  apple  is  neither  yours  nor  mine,  but  hers.  ( — your  apple  nor  my 
npple,  Hut  her  apple.)  By  others'  faults,  wise  men  correct  their  own.  {By  other  men's 
jaults,  etc.)  None  are  completely  happy.  (iVb  persons  are — )  Our  poetry,  I  be- 
lieve, and  not  our  morals,  has  been  worse  than  that  of  the  Eomans.  ( — than  the 
poetry  qf^  the  Eomaris.)  Who  is  he  ?  Which  is  he?  What  is  he  ?  Do  you  know 
who  he  is  ?  Whatever  comes  from  the  heart,  goes  to  the  heart.  Teach  me  what 
truth  is.    The  girls  love  one  another. 

The  gender,  and  why : — 

Brother,  seamstress,  Julius,  Julia,  lion,  lioness,  joy,  contentment,  master,  mis- 
tress, parent,  fatlier,  mother,  child,  son,  daughter,  he,  him,  hymn,  she,  it,  they,  we, 
you,  its,  itself,  himself,  lierself,  *person,  man,  woman,  nation,  party,  game,  partner, 
God,  deity,  divinity,  angel,  corpse,  corps,  ghost,  spirit,  writer,  marquess,  lady's 
hand,  lady's-alipper,  soul,  steer,  Turk,  Jew,  Jews,  nothing,  none,  nobody,  tliyself, 
themselves,  which,  who,  others,  whatsoever,  whose.  John  is  a  noun,  and  she  is  a 
pronoun. 

Spell  the  corresponding  feminine : — 

*Administrator,  Instructor,  tutor,  director,  hero,  executor,  gander,  count,  earl, 
emperor,  sultan,  duke,  prophet,  sir,  Don,  gentleman. 

Spell  the  corresponding  inasGuline  : — 

*Wife,  queen,  heiress,  Josephine,  lady,  lass,  maid,  miss,  mistress,  signora, 
marchioness,  nun,  Harriet,  Frances,  Joanna,  hind,  roe,  spawner. 

The  person,  and  why: — 

I,  you,  he,  we,  my,  us,  thee,  yourselves,  mine,  thine,  thyself,  himself,  them- 
selves, it,  she,  hers  ;  the  drooping  willow  ;  my  dictionary  ;  your  grammar  ;  her 
needle  and  tai-ead  ;  Washington's  birthday. 

My  mother !  when  I  learned  that  thou  wast  dead, 
Say,  wast  thou  conscious  of  the  tears  I  shed  ? 
Hovered  thy  spirit  o'er  thy  sorrowing  son. 
Wretch  even  then,  life's  journey  iust  begun  ? — Gowper. 
*I  Joseph  Eogers  hold  myself  responsible.     Mary,  you  are  a  lazy  girl.    We  pas- 
sengers have  poor  fare.     A  horse  !  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  I    Come,  Peace 
of  tidnd,  delightful  guest.    And  peace,  O  Virtue,  peace  is  all  thy  own.    We  are  old 
acquaintances.    You  are  quite  a  philosopher.    I  am  the  captain,  sir.    Well,  my  little 
friend,  how  fare  the  schoolboys  'i    The  good  man  and  woman  are  long  since  in  their 
graves,  who  used  to  plan  the  welfare  ot  us  their  children. 

Said  I  to  myself,  and  myself  said  to  me. 
"  Take  care  of  thyself,  for  none  care  for  thee." 

Change  into  the  other  persons : — 

*John  writes.  The  girls  study.  Henry,  you  may  play.  I  Augustus  would  do 
so.    Is  Guatamozin  to  be  burned  on  glowing  coals  ? 

Number,  and  why : — 

Book,  books,  rose,  roses,  razor,  partridge,  friends,  geese,  lilies,  family,  scissors, 
mice,  oats,  key,  letters,  anger,  love,  swarm,  ashes,  honey,  molasses,  I,  we,  you, 
thou,  him,  they,  this,  these,  that,  those,  several,  eight,  an  eight,  *oue,  ones,  our, 
ours,  my,  stimulus,  stimuli,  cherubim,  physics,  mathematics,  a,  an,  each  man, 
either  man,  every  man,  neither  road,  two,  a  two,  two  twos,  who,  which,  that,  what, 
as,  pens,  reads,  is,  has,  was  demolished,  a  twin,  a  pair. 


38  KXERCISES   ON    ALL 

Spell  the  plural  :— 
*Sofa,  dogma,  peninsula,  lamina,  minutia,  vertebra,  stigma,  orb,  cherub,  critia 
bed,  feather-bed,  crowd,  noose,  goose,  simile,  wife,  fife,  knife,  wolf,  statf,  flagstaff, 
bluff,  leaf,  turf,  hoof,  handkerchief,  egg,  orang-outang,  booth,  tooth,  eye-tooth, 
Eandolph,  sketch,  alkali,  cadi,  rabbi,  Missouri,  lark,  bell,  acquittal,  custom,  lus- 
trum, forum,  stratum,  eulogium,  nostrum,  aphorism,  pendulum,  pen,  stamen,  oc 
tagon,  phenomenon,  man,  juryman,  talisman,  Mussulman,  negro,  tyro,  trio,  cameo, 
zero,  buffalo,  motto,  canto,  embryo,  seraglio,  torpedo,  potato,  cargo,  palmotto,  mu- 
latto, manifesto,  Scipio,  Plato,  top,  thunderclap,  Philip,  master,  quartermaster, 
class,  census,  focus,  genus,  genius,  iambus,  ignoramus,  axis,  iris,  duchess,  series, 
trellis,  ellipsis,  ephemeris,  oasis,  apparatus,  chorus,  denarius,  Kufus,  Venus,  Soc- 
rates, Gracchus,  root,  foot,  fox,  ox,  six,  sea-mew,  gun,  alley,  ally,  money,  valley, 
city,  Henry,  cousin-merman,  court-martial,  coming-in,  out-pouring,  Miss  Sprague, 
Mr.  Phinney,  Lord  Chancellor,  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Spell  the  singular : — 

*Appendices,  arcana,  antitheses,  desiderata,  series,  virtuosi,  nebulaj,  volcanoes, 
apostrophes,  apparatus,  igues  fatui. 

The  noun  or  pronoun ;  then  the  case,  and  ivhy : — 

John  found  Mary's  book,     Lucy's  lamb  nips  the  grass.     The  sun  illuminates 

the  world.    Fair  blooms  the  lily.    lie  wrote  his  name  in  his  book.    John  shot  some 

squirrels  in  your  fit'aer's  field.    The  Greeks  were  more  ingenious  than  the  Ro- 

.  mans.    In  peace,  he  was  the  gale  of  spring ;  in  war,  the  mountain-storm.    The 

plough,  the  sword,  the  pen,  and  the  needle, — how  mighty  ! 

On  that  day  of  desolation. 

Lady,  I  was  captive  made ; 
Bleeding  for  my  Christian  nation. 
By  the  walls  of  high  Belgrade. —  Campbell. 
*Then  rushed  the  steeds  to  battle  driven.    Sweet  fountain,  once  again  I  visit 
thee.     To  venture  iu  was  to  die.    I  know  that  you  can  learn.     I  hurt  myself.     I 
myself  hurt  him.    Promising  and  performing  are  two  different  things.     To  be  a 
busy-body  is  a  mean  occupation.     A  piece  of  candy  ten  inclies  long,  is  worth  a 
dime.    John  Jones, — and  what  of  him  ? 

Chiefs,  sages,  heroes,  bards,  and  seers, 

That  live  in  story  and  in  song. 
Time  for  the  last  two  thousand  years 

Has  raised,  and  shown,  and  swept  along. — Anonymous. 
Bear  witness,  Greece  ;  thy  living  page 
Attest  it  many  a  deathless  age. — Byron. 

Gender,  person,  number,  and  case : — 

My,  be,  she,  it,  they,  us,  our,  yours,  your,  them,  me,  we,  you,  hers,  its,  your- 
pelf,  ourselves,  themselves,  *who,  whose,  whom,  wnat,  which,  whoever,  others, 
one's,  that,  none,  as. 

What  is  the  nominative  correnpoTiding  to — 

Me  ? — us  ? — thee  ? — him  ? — whom  ? — her  ? — hers  ?  —  them  ? — themselves  'i  —  hor- 
selfil— it? 

What  is  the  objective  corresponding  to — 

I  ? — thou  ? — we  ? — ye  ? — he  ? — she  ? — they  ? — who  'i 

Form  the  compound  pronoun  : — 

My,  our,  thy,  your,  him,  her,  it,  one,  than,  who,  which,  what. 

Spell  the  possess'i/ve  singular;  then  the  possessive  plural,  if  the  word  eati  hwce  it: — 

Sister,t  John,  day.  Sparks,  prince,  horse,  St.  James,  John  Henry  Thomson,  ho, 
one,  who,  other,  slie,  it,  court-mnrtial,  brother-in-law,  book-keeper,  alumua*, 
alumna ;  Allen  and  Baker ;  Morris,  tlie  bookseller. 

Change  into  the  other  form,  and  notice  the  eject : — 

Ajax's  shield.  The  company's  control.  The  company's  management.  The  doc- 
tor's treatment.    God's  love.    Knowledge  of  the  man.    My  friend's  nomination, 

t  Thus:  S-i-s-STs — t-c-r-apcstroi.hc-s-tei's — Sister'a 


THE    PAKTS    OF    SPJCECH.  39 

A.usrus.tvcs  the  Roman  emperor's  friend.  Prentice's  poems.  Hope's  pleasures. 
V\'iiiiain's  brother's  wife's  sister.  Nature's,  custom's,  reason's,  passion's  strife. 
The  rumor  of  tlie  death  of  the  wife  of  the  President. 

Tell  which  are  the  pronoun.%  and  their  antecedents  when  it  can  he  detennined;  also 
diipose  of  both  no  una  and  pronouns  in  regard  to  case : — 

Liberty  iuis  God  on  her  side.  Let  every  man  take  care  of  himself.  John,  you, 
nd  J,  must  water  our  garden.  Neither  John  nor  James  knows  his  lesson.  Henry, 
^  oil  must  study.  He  who  created  me,  whose  I  am,  and  wiiom  1  serve,  is  eternal. 
And  there  her'brood  the  partridge  led.  Tlie  two  brothers  love  each  other.  All 
nir  pupils  are  kind  to  one  another.  We  are  prone  to  sin.  Your  situation  is  not 
:.uch  a  one  as  nime,  *Hail !  ye  men  of  Altorf.  Said  William  to  Joseph,  "  I  will 
go  with  you."  Is  the  book  yours,  or  mine  'i  Where  is  it,  Jack,  where  is  it  ?  It  is 
easy  to  spend  money.  It  rained  the  whole  night.  It  was  Henry  that  said  it.  You 
are  very  sick,  and  1  am  sorry  for  it.  You  wrofe  to  me,  which  was  all  you  did.  His 
praise  is  lost  who  waits  till  all  commend.  Take  my  advice,  or  that  ot  your  father. 
Whoever  violates  this  rule,  shall  suffer  the  penalty.  Tell  me  what  you  want. 
Who  knows  yfh.o  he  is  ?  Can  you  tell  which  is  which  ?  Whom  do  you  take  me  to 
be  i  I  knovr  not  who  he  is.  I  know  not  who  the  candidate  will  be  ?  Which  is 
Shylock,  and  which  is  Antonio  ?  Whatever  he  undertakes,  he  performs.  What- 
ever is,  is  right.  What  in  me  is  dark,  illumine  ;  what  is  low,  raise  and  support. 
-Whatever  i  am,  I  tremble  to  think  what  I  may  be.  I  hope  what  1  say  will  have  an 
etfect  upon  him,  and  prevent  the  impression  which  Avhat  he  says  may  have  upon 
others.  Select  whatever  man  is  most  suitable.  And  if  thou  saidst  1  'm  not  a  peer, 
Lord  Angus,  thou  hast  lied  ! 

lime  writes  no  wrinkles  on  thine  azure  brow; 

Sucn  as  creation's  dawn  beheld  thee,  such  tuou  rollest  now. — Byron. 

Heaven  hides  from  brutes  what  men,  from  men  what  spirits,  know. — Pope. 

Insert  tlie  nouns  and  pronouns  that  will  preserve  the  sense,  and  make  the  expression  full : — 

1  have  lost  the  letter  you  wrote.  Who  bets,  should  be  willing  to  lose.  The 
door  opens  to  whoever  knocks.  1  want  such  as  hear  me,  to  take  warning.  His 
principles  are  such  as  a  good  man  should  blush  to  own.  His  principles  are  those 
which  a  good  man  should  blush  to  own.  Whom  slie  loves  so  much  1  never  could 
fancy.    Here  are  the  marbles  :  take  which  is  yours. 

The  article,  and  why;  whether  definite  or  indefinite,  and  ichij: — 

The  roses  in  the  garden.  The  rose  is  a  beautiful  flower.  A  fish  from  the  river. 
A  daughter  of  a  duke.  Tlie  daughter  of  a  duke.  A  daughter  of  the  duke.  A 
portrait  of  the  notorio  us  Barnum. 

Place  the  proper  indefinite  article  before  each  of  the  foUoioing  words  or  phrasss : — 
*Arrow,  yard,  university,  hundred,  hostler,  harpoon,  heathen,  hotel,  humble 

request,   hero,   heroic  poem,  hexameter,  habitual  drunkard,  eulogy,  ewe,  unit, 

union  ;  united  people  ;  ubiquitous  quack. 

The  adjective,  and  why ;  whether  descriptive  or  definitive,  and  why ;  and  to  what  it 
belongs : — 

The  blue  sky.  The  sky  is  blue.  An  aspiring  man.  A  modest  and  beautiful 
woman,  with  eyes  bright,  blue,  and  affectionate.  The  night  grew  darker  and 
darker.  That  field  has  been  in  cultivation  four  years.  Tiie  first  car  is  not  full, 
having  but  one  man  in  it.  The  earth  was  green  with  grass,  fresh  with  dew,  and 
bright  with  morning  light.  The  rosy-fingered  Morn.  The  star-powdered  galaxy. 
*The  apples  boiled  soft.  Now  t\urer  blooms  the  rose.  His  hammock  swung  loose 
at  the  sport  of  the  wind.  He  is  asleep.  Let  me  alone :  I  feel  somewhat  tigerish. 
The  fear  of  being  awkward  makes  us  awkward.  To  be  indolent  in  youth,  is 
ruinous. 

Whether  participial,  proper,  compound,  distributive,  demonstrative  or  definite,  indeflr 
nite,  numeral — and  whether  cardinal  or  ordinU, — and  lohy: — 

~  Every,  each,  this,  that,  yonder,  any,  one,  four,  fourth;  two  men;  second  man: 
tinkling  bells ;  howlmg  winds ;  African  monkeys ;  Pindaric  verse ;  two-edged 
Bwords ;  one  dollar  for  every  two  living  white-featbered  turkeys. 

Compare,  of  the  following  adjectives,  those  which  can  be  compared  with  propriety : — 

Wise,  studious,  near,  good,  evil,  melodious,  high,  tuneful,  saucy,  eloquent,  ex- 

riressive,  lively,  nimble,  late,  many,  ranch,  few,  little,  old,  shallow -brained,  glow- 


40  EXERCISES    ON"    4LL 

inj^,  *knowiasr,  accomphslied,  expert,  half-flnished,  full,  counterfeit,  graceful, 
meagre,  worthless,  bottomless,  fundamental,  ornameutal,  vernal,  green,  sluggish, 
suu-burut,  free,  lirst. 

3fention  and  spell  the  three  degrees  of  comparison : — 

Strong,  weak,  light,  gay,  rough,  nice,  coarse,  fierce,  white,  ripe,  thin,  slim,  dim, 
lit,  hot,  fat,  glad,  big,  droll,  dry,  sprightly,  manly,  gentle,  feeble,  able,  idle,  serene, 
discreet,  severe,  polite,  sublime,  intense,  profound. 

Compare  iy  using  less  and  least  : — 

Broad,  convenient,  confident,  lively,  troublesome,  thick,  joyful,  sorrowful,  ex- 
orbitant, exact,  indulgent,  handsome. 

Join  suitahle  adjectives  to  each  of  the  follotoing  nouns  :— 

Moon,  field,  fountain,  trees,  garden,  horse,  willow,  man,  woman,  mule,  pen, 
ink,  day,  wood,  boys,  thoughte,  reelings,  actions,  conduct. 

7%e  verbs,  and  why : — 

The  sun  rises.  Hope  deceives  us.  Saddle  your  horse.  Bees  collect  honey. 
Honey  is  collected  by  bees.  The  bird  flutters.  The  trees  wave.  The  workmen 
have  built  the  house.  The  Indians  bound  their  prisoners.  The  prisoners  were 
bound.  Pinks  are  fragrant.  The  thunder  was  rolling.  Lips,  however  rosy,  must 
be  fed.  The  mill  can  not  grind  with  the  water  that  has  passed.  Think  ot  ease, 
but  work  on.  'Kiches  are  got  with  pain,  kept  with  care,  and  lost  with  grief.  We 
are  loved  for  our  gifts,  but  respected  for  the  use  we  make  of  them. 

The  jyartioiples  and  the  infiniiives,  and  why : — 

Planting,  planted,  being  planted,  having  planted,  having  been  planted,  to  plant, 
to  be  planted,  to  be  planting,  to  have  planted,  to  have  been  planted,  to  have  been 
planting.  Columbus  became  wearied  and  disheartened  by  impediments  thrown  in 
his  way.  The  Indians  fled,  leaving  their  mules  tied  to  the  bushes.  We  saw  the 
sun  rising.  We  saw  the  sun  rise. — When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold,  for 
the  last  time,  the  sun  in  heaven,  may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and  dis- 
honored fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union  ;  on  States  severed,  discordant,  and 
belligerent;  on  a  land  rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may  be,  with  fraternal 
blood ! —  Webster. 

Give  the  principal  parts,  and  tell  whether  the  verb  is  regular  or  irregiUar; — 
Form,  attack,  strip,  deny,  bow,  sow,  grow,  sew,  sin,  win,  spin,  authorize,  crit- 
icise, skim,  swim,  heal,  steal,  fling,  bring,  spread,  dread,  twit,  sit,  fit,  hit,  die,  lie, 
mold,  hold,  close,  lose,  choose,  blind,  find,  fine,  spurn,  burn,  reel,  feel,,  blend, 
rend,  lend,  loan,  tend,  tent,  need,  feed,  blight,  nght,  wink,  drink,  slink,  sneak, 
speak,  steep,  sleep,  cleave,  weave,  leave,  reach,  teach,  fret,  get,  let,  set,  whet, 
smut,  put,  agree,  free,  see,  flee,  fly,  cry,  spite,  bite,  write,  take,  make,  bake,  bare, 
dare,  stray,  pay,  slay,  trick,  click,  stick,  call,  fall,  fell,  bind,  bound,  grind,  ground, 
heat,  eat,"  roam,  come,  welcome,  hold,  uphold,  withhold,  give,  misgive,  undergo, 
undo,  counteract,  say,  gainsay,  will,  shall,  have,  may,  can,  land,  stand,  am,  be, 
rise,  raise,  tell,  swell,  spell,  quell,  lie,  lay,  sit,  seat,  set. 

Oive,  in  the  order  of  the  Conjugation,  the  participles,  then  the  inJiniUves : — 
*Move,  rise,  spring,  degrade,  growl,  find,  conclude,  undermine,  reinstate,  write, 
invigorate,  bleed,  overwhelm,  drown,  weave,  see. 

The  verbs,  and  whether  transitive,  passive,  intransitive,  or  neuter,  and  why : — 
Tlie  horse  carries  his  rider.  The  horses  are  hitched  to  the  wagon.  The  water 
turned  the  wheel.  The  wheel  was  turned  by  the  water.  Mary  reads.  The  book 
IS  read.  The  m;in  kicked  the  horse.  The  man  was  kicked  by  the  horse.  The 
horse  kicks.  Such  as  1  am,  I  have  always  been,  and  always  shall  be.  To  teach, 
having  taught,  having  been  taught,  to  have  been  taught.  *Since  these  men  could 
no^be  convinced,  it  was  determined  that  they  should  be  persecuted.  He  talks  weU. 
He  talks  nonsense.  If  he  thinks  as  he  speaks,  lie  may  be  safely  trusted.  If  you 
arc  able  to  help,  wait  not  to  be  asked.  He  seated  himself.  He  sat  in  a  corner.^  He 
set  a  trap  for  partridges.  Lay  the  book  where  it  lay  before.  Your  leaders  hissed 
their  indignation,  a  id  shouted—"  KtiL  !"  The  workmen  are  building  the  house. 
The  house  is  building.  Our  chains  are  forging.  Q-reen  maple  cuts  easily.  An  as 
to  grind.    He  was  never  heard  of  afterwards. 


THE   PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  41 

Air,  water,  earth, 
By  fowl,  fisli,  beast,  was  flown,  was  swum,  was  walked. — Milton. 

Ohange  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  make  the  active  verbs  passive,  and  the  passfoo 
verbs  active  ;— 

The  sun  adorns  the  world.  Indolence  produces  misery.  My  neighbor  has 
planted  some  apple-trees.  The  dog  bit  the  stranger.  The  distance  was  measured 
by  a  surveyor.  Morse  invented  the  telegraph.  The  boat  was  built  by  Lucas.  Tlie 
lawyer  sliould  pay  the  debt.  Can  the  river  be  forded  at  this  place,  by  a  man  on 
Horseback  'i  *He  paid  for  the  carriage.  The  ministers  speak  of  peace.  He  was 
i^'xpected  to  strike.  He  saw  and  conquered.  He  knows  to  govern.  To  write,  to 
t*iuoke ;  drying. 

The  verb  ;  then  the  atcxUiary,  what  it  implies,  and  what  mood  and  ten^e  it  expresses : 
John  can  read.  Mary  may  write.  Die  I  must.  He  does  improve  rapidly.  Do 
you  know  him  ?  The  sun  has  risen.  The  thief  had  left  the  tavern  when  his  pur- 
suers came.  I  have  a  knife,  and  it  is  sharp.  You  shall  obey  me.  Ye  will  not 
come,  that  ye  may  have  life.  He  would  not  learn  himself,  nor  could  he  teacii 
others.  *I  will  come  if  I  can.  It  should  not  be,  and  it  shall  not  be.  He  will  go. 
if  it  should  be  necessary.  Whoever  shall  desert,  shall  be  handed.  Whoever  would 
desert,  should  be  hanged.  They  were  to  sail  with  Columbus,  m  whatever  direction 
he  should  be  sent  by  royal  command.    May  God  ever  protect  the  right. 

The  verbs ;  then  ths  mood,  and  why : — 

William  is  writing.  The  rosemary  nods  on  the  grave,  and  the  lily  lolls  on  the 
wave.  He  caught  some  fish.  It  will  rain  this  evening.  I  may  command,  but  you 
must  obey.  He  could  and  should  have  assisted  us,  but  he  would  not.  Do  not 
value  a  gem  by  what  it  is  set  in.  If  William  study,  he  will  soon  know  his  lesson. 
If  wishes  were  horses,  beggars  would  ride.  Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should 
go  ;  and,  when  he  is  old,  he  will  not  depart  from  it.  The  violet  soon  will  cease  to 
smile,  the  whippoorwill  to  chant.  Whatever  thy  hands  find  to  do,  do  it  with  all 
thy  might.  Discovered  and  surprised,  he  started  up.  May  you  be  happy.  If  you 
are  disappointed,  blame  not  me.  If  you  be  disappointed,  blame  not  me.  If  I  were 
you,  I  would  sell.  *If  the  mail  has  come,  bring  my  letters.  He  would  rob  others, 
if  there  were  no  law  to  restrain  him.  O,  that  he  were  wiser.  He  is  as  merry  as  if 
nothing  were  troubling  him.  If  the  line  is  drawn  bisecting  the  angle,  the  seg- 
ments are  equal.  If  the  line  be  drawn  bisecting  the  angle,  the  segments  will  be 
equal.  This  government  will  fall,  if  it  lose  the  confidence  of  the  people.  This 
government  would  tall,  if  it  lost  the  confidence  of  the  people.  This  government 
would  have  fallen,  had  it  lost  the  confidence  of  the  people.  Had  you  forborne, 
you  had  still  been  happy.  Turn  we  now  to  another  part.  Lot  us  now  turn  to  an- 
uther  part.  Heaven  defend  me  from  that  Welsh  fairy.  Be  it  so.  Say  they  who 
can  advise.    Somebody  call  my  wife. 

The  verbs  ;  then  the  tense,  and  why : — 

Billows  are  murmuring  on  the  hollow  shore.  Hushed  now  are  the  whirlwinds 
that  rurtied  the  deep.  The  rose  seemed  to  weep  for  the  buds  it  had  left.  The 
storin  had  ceased  before  I  reached  a  shelter.  The  storm  ceased  before  we  reached 
a  shelter.  A  guilty  conscience  needs  no  accuser.  He  who  is  a  stranger  to  indus- 
try, may  possess,  but  he  can  not  enjoy.  Men  must  be  taught  as  if  you  taught 
them  not.  How  dense  and  bright  you  pearly  clouds  reposing  lie.  Then  thou  shalt 
iind  tliat  thou  must  lose  thy  life.  It  would  have  grieved  your  heart  to  see  tiie 
^ight.  He  sank  exhausted  on  the  bloody  field.  Strike!  for  the  green  graves  of 
vour  sires.  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother.  Hallowed  be  thy  name.  I  may 
Lave  made  some  mistake.  I  had  heard  that  the  spirit  of  discontent  was  very  preva- 
lent here  ;  but  with  pleasure  I  find  that  1  have  oeen  grossly  misinformed.  Had 
the  Turkish  empire  then  risen  in  opposition,  it  could  not,  at  that  moment,  have 
deterred  them.  Your  character  will  have  been  forme!  at  the  age  of  twenty.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  wriiten  the  book.  I  said.  Go;  and  he  went.  If  it  were  really 
80,  then  I  would  say,  Quit  your  business.  Having  received  an  invitation,  he  was 
expected  to  come.  I  had  to  sell  it.  I  had  rather  sell  it.  I  would  rather  sell  it.  As 
soon  as  I  have  learned  my  lesson,  I  will  play  with  you. 

l^ow  choAige  the  verbs  in  some  of  fis  foregoing  sentences  into  all  the  other  moods,  then 
itvtu  all  the  othe:  tenses. 


42  EXERCISES    ON   ALL 

.V 

The  verbs  ;  then  the  forms,  and  why : — 

Twilight  is  weeping  o'er  the  pensive  rose.  As  we  were  coming  home,  we  saw 
a  most  beautiful  ruinbow.  It  does  amaze  me.  Ye  know  not  what  ye  say.  Learn- 
iug_  taketh  away  the  barbarity  of  men's  minds.  Gone,  forever  gone,  are  the  lovelv 
vibious  of  youth. 

The  verbs;  and  of  what  person  and  number,  to  agree  with ; — 

I  stud^^  We  write.  lie  stutters.  Grass  grows.  They  w^ere.  You  might  im- 
prove. Tliou  art  the  man.  It  is.  Ye  are.  Thou  hast  been.  The  wind  has  risen. 
Cows  are  lowing.  The  cricket  cliirps.  Sing,  heavenly  I,tuse.  Seek  we  the  shade. 
It  is  I.  It  is  they.  1  myself  saw  him.  The  general  himself  was  slain.  *Down 
went  the  ship  and  her  gal^aat  crew.  Down  went  the  ship,  with  her  gallant  crew. 
T!ie  public  r-re  invited.  The  colony  was  injured  by  civil  dissensions.  Many  a 
man  has  been  ruined  by  speculation.  Be  it  enacted.  John,  bring  me  some  water. 
Kiso,  and  defend  thyself.  To  complain  is  useless.  What  signifies  your  complain- 
ing ?  It  is  useless  to  complain.  Is  it  he?  There  are  some  persons  at  the  door. 
Either  your  horse  or  mine  is  gone.  Neither  the  woman  nor  her  child  was  hurt. 
Thou  or  I  am  to  blame.     He,  as  well  as  I,  is  to  blame. 

Conjugate  each  of  the  following  verbs,  beginning  with  the  first  person  svngulcir,  OAid 
stopping  with  the  subject  :— 

The  boy  learns.  (Thus:  Singular,  1st  person,  Ilearn ;  2d  person,  You  learn; 
idl>ey6on,  Iley  or  tJieoo^,  learns.)  The  leaves  are  falling.  Flowers  must  fade.  Jane 
reads.  Jane  and  Eiiza  read.  Jane  or  Eliza  reads.  The  lands  may  have  been  sold. 
Tne  horse  has  been  eating.    The  horses  have  been  fed. 

Covjug  ate  fully  the  verbs  tittle,  permit,  cakey,  strike,  see. 

The  verbs;  regular  or  irregular  ;  transitive,  passive,  intransitive,  or  neuter  ;  mood, 
tense,  and  form  ;  2)erso7i  and  number, — and  why : — 

He  reads.  We  have  slept.   She  died.    Were  we  surpassed?  Were  we  s^iirpassed. 
You  had  seen.     Had  you  seen  ?    Take  care,  lest  thou  lose  it.    My  time  might  have 
been  improved  better.  The  strawberries  are  ripening.  1  wish  I  were  a  careless  child. 
Now,  now,  while  my  strength  and  my  youth  are  in  bloom, 
Let  me  think  what  will  serve  me  when  sickness  shall  come, 

And  pray  that  my  sins  be  forgiven  : 
Let  me  read  in  good  books,  and  believe  and  obey. 
That,  when  Death  turns  me  out  of  this  cottage  of  clay, 
I  may  dwell  in  a  palace  in  heaven. —  Watts. 

The  adverbs  ;  of  what  kind,  and  what  they  modify : — 

Now,  wisely,  here,  there,  foi*wards,  always,  sometimes,  very,  long  ago;  wonder- 
fully made  ;  to'^ofast;  rather  slender.  The  horse  runs  swiftly.  Godis  everywhere. 
Never  before  did  I  see  her  look  so  pale.  These  things  have  always  been  so.  You 
do  not  know  him  a,s  well  as  I  do.  I  just  now  saw  hiin  here.  He  read  aloud.  The 
hall  was  biilliantly  illuminated,  and  densely  crowded  with  hearers.  He  is  poor 
enough  that  is  not  lovC'l.  Play  is  good  while  it  is  play.  Perhaps  you  have  not 
noticed  quite  all  the  adverbs  in  the  sentence  which  I  have  just  read.  The  women 
especially  were  well  provided  for.  Your  book  is  more  beautiful ;  mine  is  more 
useful.  1  have  been  too  idle  heretofore ;  but  henceforth  I  will  study  more  dili- 
gently. *Not  to  us,  bat  to  thy  name,  be  all  the  praise.  However  pleasant  it 
may  be,  we  can  tarry  no  longer.  The  cooler  the  water,  the  better  I  like  it.  There 
lived  a  man  whose  name  was  Dan.  Secondly,  there  is  no  honorable  way  of  retreat- 
ing. Why,  off  again  ?  I  consulted  him  once  or  twice  ;  not  oftener.  Did  you  ever 
tell  a  lie  ? — No,  indeed.  The  flowers  are  no  more.  We  have  marched  not  quite 
far  enough  as  yet  perhaps.  The  monkey  at  once  took  up  the  violin,  and  tried  it 
all  over,  but  could  not  find  where  the  tune  lay.  And  thou  hast  hob-a-nobbed  with 
Pharaoh,  glass  to  glass. 

Compare : — 

Late,  soon,  early,  much,  little,  well,  ill,  long,  far,  proudly,  heroically,  partio- 
ularly. 

Mention  the  corresponding  adverb  :— 

True,  new,  sure,  good,  glaring,  studious,  ardent,  bad,  patient,  noblCj  gentle, 
lazv,  profuse,  slavish,  richer,  richest,  plainer,  severest,  *nece8saiy,  graphic,  critic, 
or<Ier,  grammar,  histoi-y,  aiithmrtic,  a!;;rebr;i. 


THE   PARTS   OP   SPEECH.  -^ 

With  vigor ;  in  a  careless  manner ;  without  care  ;  with  pride  j  with  scorn ;  in 
what  place  ;  from  what  place  ;  from  what  cause  ;  in  this  place  ;  in  that  place  ;  in 
this  manner;  in  such  a  manner;  to  that  place  ;  in  all  places  j  at  all  times ;  at  tho 
present  time ;  as  occasion  requires ;  to  such  a  degree  ;  m  a  higher  degree  ;  in  the 
lowest  degree;  in  any  degree  whatever  r=at  uU) ;  into  equal  parts;  without 
doubt;  it  maybe  that;  in  an  instant;  at  tnat  time ;  at  what  time;  onetime;  in 
the  second  place ;  at  whatever  time ;  in  whatever  place  ;  from  instinct ;  for  the 
future ;  by  the  year. 

Wuit. phrases  correspond  to  the  following  adverbs:— 

Modestly,  properly,  angrily,  disdarnfally,  here,  there,  where,  hither,  thither, 
wliither,  hence,  thence,  whence,  now,  then,  when,  yet,  monthly,  successively, 
t^uccessfully,  twice,  amen,  more  forcibly,  most  harmoniously. 

77i-e  prepositions,  and  between  what  they  shoto  the  relation : — 

Flowers  are  growing  along  the  rivulet.  Above,  around,  and  beneath  him  were 
clouds.  I  sawliim,  through  the  window.  The  bear  was  attacked  by  the  dogs, 
r.nd  chased  through  the  cane-brake  into  the  river.  My  dinner  is  in  my  basket  un- 
C.ax  the  bench.  Beneath  the  oak  lie  acorns  in  abundance.  There  was  a  sound  of 
revelry  by  night.  By  assisting  me,  you  will  confer  a  great  fovor  on  me.  It  hap- 
pened since  morning*,  and  before  eleven  o'clock.  He  came  from  beyond  Jordan. 
He  was  rowing  up  the  river;  but  I,  down. 

Change  the  adjuncts  into  adjectives : — 

These  are  productions  of  nature.  He  is  a  man  of  honesty  and  industry.  This 
is  a  garden  for  the  use  of  the  kitchen.  A  fellow  without  worth.  The  orphan 
without  friends.    The  gate  of  the  prison. 

Change  the  relative  clauses  into  adjuncts,  then  the  adjuncts  into  adjectives: — 
The  man  who  is  temperate,  will  live  long.     The  horse  which  ran  most  swiftly, 
fell  over  a  precipice  that  is  very  high.     The  trees  which  bloom  earliest,  are  gen- 
erally the  first  that  die. 

Change  the  adjuncts  into  adjterhs : — 

They  advanced  with  caution.  Arrayed  in  splendor.  Fast  in  a  moderate  de- 
gree.   Collecting  with  rapidity.    At  this  time.    Let  me  tell  you  for  what  reason. 

Expand  into  adjuncts: — 

Worldly  cares.  Ethereal  realms.  A  hazel  thicket.  Skillfully  performed. 
Neatly  dressed.    Spread  profusely.     Flashing  clouds  thundered  afar. 

T!ie  conjunctions,  what  they  imply,  and  xchat  they  connect : — 

And,  also,  because,  since,  yet,  but,  however,  if,  though,  that,  unless,  inasmuch 
:;s,  notwithstanding,  or,  nor.  You  must  study,  if  you  would  be  wise.  I  did  not, 
because  I  could  not.  John  is  industrious,  but  Charles  is  indolent.  He  is  neither 
!e;iriied  nor  naturally  sagacious.  I  will  either,  come  or  send.  Unless  you  are 
economical,  you  will  never  bacome  rich.     'Tis  true,  but  yet  in  vain. 

Tlie  interjections,  and  of  what  hind: — 

0  !  oh !  alas  !  welcome  !  hail !  ho  !  ah !  tush  !  hurrah  !  Deluded  hopes  ! — oh, 
worse  than  death!  Tut!  such  aristocracy.  La  you!  if  you  speak  ill  of  the 
Devil,  how  he  takes  it  at  heart  I  Aha  1  caught  at  last.  Adieu !  adieu !  dear 
native  land. 

Tell  ofiohatpart  of  speech  each  word  is,  and  show  its  relation  to  the  other  words: — 
The  storms  of  time  that  prostrated  the  proudest  monuments  of  the  world, 
fscemed  to  have  left  their  vibrations  in  the  still,  solemn  air ;  ages  of  history  passed 
before  me ;  the  mighty  processions  of  nations,  kings,  consuls,  «mperors,  empires, 
and  generations,  had  passed  over  that  sublime  theatre. — Travels  in  Italy. 
'Tis  the  star-spangled  banner  !     0,  long  may  it  wave 
O'er  the  laud  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave. — Key. 
And  there  lay  the  rider  distorted  and  pale. 
With  the  dew  on  his  brow  and  the  rust  on  his  mail. — Byron. 
Supply  the  words  omitted : — 

A  man  and  woman  were  drowned.  You  may  write,  and  then  cipher.  Give 
him  bi8  hook.    He  is  like  you.    A  book  of  my  sister's.     John  knows  more  than 


44  KULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

Rufua.  Tlie  first  tree  and  the  fourth  are  dead.  I  shall  call  for  you  at  Smith's. 
You  have  the  horse  I  want.  Let  it  be.  Arm,  soldiers  !  How  now,  Tul  al ;  what 
news  from  Genoa?  Sweet  the  pleasure,  rich  the  treasure.  Strange  indeed,  he 
should  have  known  me  !  Will  you  go  there? — I  go  there?  Never.  Soon  ripe, 
soon  rotten. 

Cliange  the  position  of  the  words,  without  changing  the  meaning  : — 
After  a  painful  struggle,   I  yielded  to  my  fate.     Sweet  songs  were  heard  the 
leafy  dells  along.     Me  elory  summons  to  the  martial  scene.     Various,  sincere, 
and  constant  are  the  efforts  of  men  to  produce  that  happiness  which  the  mind 
requires. 

"^ell  which  is  the  subject,  and  which  in  the  predicate : — 
^  Birds  sing.     The  grass  is  growing.    The  bird Tias  been  singing.    The  clothes 
will  have  been  dried.    Read.    Hark !  they  whisper  ;  angels  say,  Sister-spirit,  come 
away.    The  sun  shines  and  warms.    The  sun  and  moon  shine". 

77*6  entire  suhject  end  the  entire  predicate  ;  then  the  subject-nominative  and  by  what 
modified,  and  the  predicate-verb  and  by  what  modified  .•— 

The  dog  barks.  The  dog  is  watchful.  The  dog  is  a  quadruped.  An  angry  bee 
stings.  The  soul  can  not  die.  The  parrot  is  a  noisy  bird.  Gold  is  the  miser's 
delight.  x\  lamp  without  oil  is  useless.  Her  eyes  are  blue.  The  reed  bends  un- 
der the  wind.  The  leaves  fall  off.  The  passengers  crossed  the  mountains,  on 
mules.  A  servant  comes  running.  The  thrush  sings  merrily  in  the  morning,  from 
the  top  of  the  tree.  The  sick  man  needs  a  physician.  The  man  who  is  sick,  needs 
a  physician.    There  is  new  offered  you  an  opportunity  to  see  your  uncle. 

Point  out  the  clauses  : — 

If  we  must  fail,  be  it  so  •,   but  we  shall  not  fail. 

Because  I  eat  and  drink  without  luxury,  banislung  all  foreign  superfluity ;  be- 
cause I  dress  myself  in  a  way  at  once  comfortable,  and  pleasing  to  the  eye ;  because 
I  reinstate  the  manly  beard  "in  its  lost  honor;  because  I  withstand  privileges  and 

{)reiudices,  and  would  pass  for  no  more  than  I  am  worth ;  because  I  will  not  estab- 
ish  my  character  by  a  duel,  or  bear  about  the  insignia  of  real  or  feigned  services  ; 
because  I  forswear  deceit,  and  assert  the  truth  without  fear, — am  I  therefore  to  be 
treated,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  as  a  fool  ? 


11.  RULES   OF   SYNTAX. 

THE  RELATIONS  OF  WORDS  TO  ONE  ANOTHER,  IN  THE  STRUCTURE  OF 

SENTENCES. 

Words  axe  used  to  express  thoughts  ;  but  every  thought  requires  two 
or  more  words  to  be  associated  or  grouped  together,  in  order  to  express 
it  Almost  every  word,  therefore,  is  so  made  or  modified,  or  is  of  such  a 
nature,  that  it  looks  to  some  other  word  for  complete  sense,  and  would 
be  as  unmeaning  and  useless  by  itself  as  a  detached  piece  of  a  steam- 
engine. 

Ex. — "  The  white  house  gleaming  on  yonder  hill,  was  built  long  ago  for  me 
and  my  family  to  live  in  it."  The  relates  to  house,  siiowing  that  some  particular 
one  is  meant;  t^Me  relates  to  Ao?Ase,  describing  it;  house  relates  io  was  huill, 
the  thing  said  of  it;  gleaming  relates  to  Jioase,  describing  it ;  on  relates  to  gleam- 
ing and  hill,  showing  where ;  hill  relates  to  on,  showing  on  what ;  wiis  built, 
relates  to  hoic-se,  showing  what  is  said  of  it ;  long  ago  relates  to  was  built,  show- 
ing when ;  for  relates  to  was  built  and  me  and  my  family,  showing  the  purpose ; 
me  and  my  family  relates  to /or;  and  cotjnects  me  and  family,  showing  that  tho 
two  are  to  be  taken  together ;  my  relates  to  family,  showing  what  fiimily ;  to 
live  relates  to  me  and  family,  showing  what  we  do ;   in  relates  to  it  and  to  live. 


iiUhKH    OF    SYNTAX.  45 

sl lowing  whore ;  :iiul  it  relates  to  house  aa  the  thing  meant,  and  to  in  as  de- 
noting where.  Tliia  iUustration  may  teach  you,  to  some  extent,  what  the  fol- 
lowing Rules  mean. 

Jl;^-  To  illustrate  tho  relaiions  or  offices  of  -words  still  better,  (he  teacher  may  do  well  to  -write  on 
the  biack board,  in  conne-.od  or  deiached  order,  the  foreHToinp:  sentence,  and  the  most  suitable  of  the 
1- Mlences  -which  accompany  tho  following  Kules;  and  then  join  the  related  parts  bj  connecting  lines 
drawn  above  or  below. 

IvULE  I. — A  NOUN  or  PRON(^UN  Used  as  the  subject  of  a 
finite  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Kx.— "//eis."  y They  are.''  "/am."  "  IFe  are."  ^^ Thou  dar'^t  not.""  "Tho 
man,  who  is  industrious,  can  earn  what  he  needs."  "/  have  less  than  he  (has)." 
'•/y  lie  IS  disgmceful." 

liuLE  II. — A  NOUN  or  PRONOUN  used  independently  or  ab- 
solutely, must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Ex, — Independently:  "Go,  Tubal, ^o.""  ^'■Plato,  thou  reasonst  -well."  "Three 
thousand  ducats  !  'tis  a  good  round  siun."  "  To  he — or  not  to  he, — that  is  the 
question!"  "The  Pilgrim  Fathers, — where  are  they?"  "My  hanhs  they  are 
furnished  with  bees."  "  Worcester's  D'/i'Jormrjj,  QnabridTo  I."  Absolutely : 
"The  coat  fitting,  I  'bought  it."  "To  become  a  thorough  scholar,  requires  great 
application."     "  No  one  suspected  his  being  ^foreigner.'''' 

EuLE  III. — A  NOUN  or  pronoun  that  limits  the  meaning 
of  another  by  denoting  possession,  7nust  be  in  the  possessive 
case. 

Ex. — "  Jolm^s  horse."  That  is,  not  any  horse,  but  the  one  that  belongs  to 
John.  "&>  WaV.er  ScotVs  works."  "  Whoie  book  is  it,  if  not  mine  \=my  book]  ? 
"  Smiths  [store]  and  Barton's  store."  "  Smith,  Allen,  and  Barton's  store."  "  Call 
at  tSmUh''s,  the  oooJcseller.'''  That  is,  at  Smith's  house  or  store.  "The  captain  of 
the  Neptune's  wife." 

Rule  IV. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  trans- 
itive verb  in  the  active  voice,  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Ex. — "  I  saw  Am,  and  he  saw  wje."  "  Whom  did  you  hft  ?"  "David  slew 
Goliath.''''  "  Most  cliildren  like  to  play — like  skat'iug  and  sleiglbing.'"  "  Do  you 
K^ow  how  to  do  it  ?^'  "No  one  knows  how  much  he  is  in  ddt.'"  "By  reading 
good  hooks,  you  will  improve." 

Rule  V. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  prep- 
osition, must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Ex. — "  It  was  sent  bt  me  to  Aim."  That  is,  we  could  not  say,  when  speaking 
correctly,  It  was  sent  by  /to  he.  "An  apple  fob  &  peach.''''  "By  reading  in 
good  hooks,  you  will  improve." 

Rule  VI. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  without  a  governing 
word,  but  modifying  like  an  adverb  or  adjunct  some  other 
word,  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Ex. — "  The  street  is  a  mile  long,  and  forty  feet  wide."  "  The  horse  ran  six 
niiles.'"  "  The  knife  is  wokth  a  dollar."  "  The  amphibious  thing  now  tkips  a 
lady,  and  now  strl'ts  a  l&rd.'" — Pope.  "  I  do  not  care  a  straw.''''  "He  is  nothing 
TOO  good  for  it."     "  The  milk  is  a  little  sour." 

Rule  YII. — A  noun  or  pronoun  that  does  not  bring  an- 
other person  or  thing  into  the  sentence,  and  is  used  merely  for 
explanation,  emphasis,  or  description,  must  be  in  the  same 
case  as  the  noun  or  prono^in  denoting  the  person  or  thing. 


40  RULES   OF   SYNTAX. 

Ex. — "  The  axBANGEK-was  jonr/riendjheth&t  afterwards  became  mj  instritctor.''* 
"  Taxes,  endless  taxes,  are  the  consequences  of  corruption."  ''  He  struts  a  dandy.'''' 
"  They  made  him  captain.''''     "  He  was  made  captain.'''' 

KuLE  VIII. — The  relative  what,  and  other  expressions  of 
the  same  kind,  may  have  a  twofold  construction  in  regard 
to  case. 

Ex. — "  I  TOOK  what  STTITED  me."  "  Whoever  siss,  will  suffer."  "  Take  which- 
ever horse  you  like."     "  The  Hon  will  kill  whatever  man  tououes  him." 

EuLE  IX. — A  PRONOUN  must  agree  with  its  aiitecederit, 
in  gender,  person,  and  number. 

Ex. — "Thomas  found  his  dog  with  Henry's  dogs,  and  ^Aey  were  all  chasing  a 
DEER  which  had  leaped  out  of  the  wheat-iield.  The  antecedent  is  the  substantive  in 
reference  to  which  the  pronoun  is  used;  as,  "Mary  lost  her  book."  Here  Mary 
is  the  antecedent  of  her.  It  is  not  necessary  to  apply  the  Eule,  unless  it  is  definitely 
known  what  the  antecedent  is. 

Rule  X. — An  article  or  an  adjective  belongs  to  the 
substantive  to  luhich  it  relates. 

Ex. — A  r  tides  :  "  Bring  a  rose  from  the  garden."  "  A  gardener's  wages." 
"  Once  upon  a  summer's  day."  "  A  noun  and  pronoun."  "  The  house  and  lot." 
*■*■  An  industrious  people,  having  a  great  many  curious  inventions."  Adjec- 
tives: "  T'his  APPLE  is  ripe.''''  "  The  truly  good  [people]  are  happy^  "  The  ap- 
ples boiled  soft.''''     "  To  live  comfortably,  is  desirable.^''     (What  is  desirable  ?) 

Note  X. — An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  absolutely  after  a  preceding 
participle  or  infinitive. 

Ex. — "  To  BE  good  is  to  be  happy?''     "  The  dread  of  being  poor.'''' 

Rule  XI. — A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  in 
person  and  number. 

Ex.— "He  is.'"  "They  are:''  "Thou  art:''  "I  am."  "Tea  and  silk  are 
brought  from  the  East."  "'  A  week  or  a  month  soon  passes  away."  "  Our  people 
are  enterprising."  "No  nation  »s  at  war  with  us."  '■'■  Believe  [thou]  and  obey:'' 
'_'  To  write  ten  lines  a  day,|  is  sufficient."  "  That  so  many  are  ruined  in  large  cities,] 
is  owing  to  bad  examples." 

Note  XI. — In  a  few  peculiar  expressions,  knite  verbs  are  used  without 
a  suitable  subject,  or  without  any  subject. 

Ex.—"  MethinJcs:'' 

"  Forthwith  on  all  sides  to  his  aid  was  run 
By  angels  many  and  strong." — M'dton's  P.  L.,  B.  VI. 
And  perhaps,  "  God  said,  Let  us  make  man  in  our  own  image." 

XII. — A  participle  or  an  infinitive  relates  to  a  noun  or 
pronoun  as  its  subject;  and  the  infinitive  may  besides  modify 
the  meaning  or  complete  the  construction  of  some  other  word 
or  part  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — "  Wk  I  WALKED  out  to  scc  tho  Moox  rising:''  "A  mountain  so  high  as  to  be 
perpetually  covered  with  snow."  A  noun'or  pronoun,  used  as  such  a  subject,  may 
1)6  either  in  the  nominative  case  or  in  the  objective  case;  and  it  denotes  the  object 
to  which  the  act  or  state  belongs. 

NoTK  XII. — A  PARTICIPLE  ov  an  iNri:^iTiVE  is  sometimes  used  absolutely 
or  independently. 


PARSING.  47 

Ex. — "  Generally  speaking,  youn^  men  are  better  for  business  than  old  men  are." 
"  To  L'O  about,  seeking  employment,  is  irksome."  "  But,  to  proceed:  It  has  been  fre- 
quently remarked,"  etc.  "  h)very  man  has,  so  to  speak,  several  strings  by  which  he 
may  be  pulled."  But  suitable  words  can  generally  be  supplied,  to  avoid  the  neces- 
sity of  using  this  Note. 

Rule  XIII. — An  adverb  belongs  to  the  word,  phrase,  or 
proposition,  which  it  modifies. 

Ex. — "  A  most  BEAUTIFUL  horso  galloped  very  'Rkvidly  up  the  road." 

Note  XIII. — A  conjunctive  adverb  joins  on  something  that  usually 

expresses  the  time,  place,  or  manner,  or  that  is  used  in  the  sense  of  an  adverb 

an  adjective^  or  a  noun. 

Ex. — '■'■Giowhenjoxi.  please."     "The  grave  where  our  hero  was  buried."     "I 

know  how  you  got  it." 

Remark  XIII. — An  adverb  appears  to  he  sometirriies  used  independently. 

Ex. — "  Well,  I  really  don't  know  what  to  do."  "  Why,  that  is  a  new  idea.'' 
Adverbs  thus  used  partake  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  conjunctions  and  interjec- 
tions. 

Rule  XI  Y. — A  preposition  shoios  the  relation  of  an  an- 
tecedent  term,  to  a  subsequent  term  in  the  objective  case. 

Ex. — "  The  trees  most  beautiful  in  spring,  blossomed  along  the  bank  on  the 
otliersiUE  of  the  river,"  "  He  took  the  slate //-o/^  me  and  him,  and  gave  it  to  her 
for  WHOM  he  had  bought  it."  Antecedent  means  going  before;  subsequent  means 
following :  the  terms  are  usually  so  arranged,  unless  inverted,  whioli  sometimes 
happens.  Tlie  antecedent  term  maybe  a  noun,  ^pronoun,  an  adjective,  a  verb,  an 
adverb,  or  even  &  phrase  ;  the  subsequent  term  must  be  a  substantive. 

Rule  XV. — Conjunctions  connect  clauses  or  sentences  ; 
and  also  words  or  phrases  in  the  same  construction. 

Ex. — ^^  And  there  lay  the  rider  distorted  and  pale," 

"  Weeds  and  briers  now  grow  in  the  field,  because  it  is  not  cultivated. 

Rule  XVI. — Interjections  have  no  grammatical  con- 
nection with  other  words. 

Canyon  repeat  Rule  Istf— 9df—?>df—4thr— 6th f—ethl—lthf-Sth f—'^thf— 10th f-^ 
nth  f—nth  f—mh  f—Uth  f—lUh  f—16th  f 

12.   PARSING. 

General  Formula. — The  part  of  speech,  and  why  ;  the  kind,  and  why ; 
the  properties,  and  wliy ;  the  relation  to  other  words,  and  according  to 
what  Rule. 

Articles. 

Formula.— An  article,  and  why;  ^^^l^^    \  and  why;  to  what  it  belongs, 

and  according  to  what  Rule. 

"The  river." 

"  The''''  is  an  article, — a  word  placsd  before  a  noun  to  show  how  it  is  applied  ; 
dejj/nite,  it  shows  that  some  particular  river  is  meant ;  and  it  belongs  to  "  river,''^  ac- 
cording to  Rule  X :  '■^An  article  belongs  to  the  substantive  to  which  it  relates.''^* 

"  Biver''''  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name ;  common,  it  is  a  name  common  to  all_ objects  o{ 
the  same  kind ;  neuter  gender,  it  denotes  neither  a  male  nor  a  female  ;  third  person^ 
it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  singular  number,  it  means  but  one. 

•  Tt  Is  not  necessary,  in  parsinij,  to  repeat  of  a  Rule  more  than  th«  oxamp'e  -"^quires. 


4  8  PARSING. 

In  like  manner  parse  the  following  phrases : —  ' 

The  man.  The  men.  A  rose.  An  arrow. 

The  horse.  The  horses.  A  melon.  An  island. 

The  child.  The  children.  A  university.  An  uncle. 

^ "  A  man's  hat." 

"  ^"  is  an  article, — a  word  placed  before  a  noun  to  show  liow  ii  is  applied  ;  i7i- 
dejinite,  it  shows  tliat  no  particular  man  is  meant,  and  it  belongs  to  '■'•inan's,''''  ac- 
cording to  Eule  X.     (Repeat  it.) 

*'  Man's''''  is  a  noun^  it  is  a  name  ;  common,  it  is  a  generic  name;  masculine  gerv- 
der,  it  denotes  a  male;  third  person,  it  represeuts  an  object  as  spoken  of;  sln'juldr 
nutaler,  it  means  but  one  ;  and  in  i\\Q possessive  case,  it  limits  the  meanmg  of  '■'•hat,'''' 
according  to  Eule  III.     (Jiepeat  it.) 

"  Hat"''  is  parsed  like  "  river.'''' 

Ill  like  onamner  parse  the  following  phrases  : — 

A  neighbor's  farm.  The  sun's  splendor. 

An  Indian's  hatchet.  The  boy's  book. 

A  teamster's  whip.  The  boys'  books. 

A  lady's  fan.  Women's  fancies. 

Adjectives. 

Formula. — An  adjective,  and  why ;  ^f^%  *^'^'    [  and  why ;  whether  com- 

pared  or  not,  and  how ;  the  degree,  and  why  ;  to  what  it  belongs,  and  accord- 
ing to  what  Rule. 

"  A  beautiful  morning." 

*''  BeautifuV  is  an  adjective, — a  word  used  to  qualify  or  Ihnit  the  meaning  of  a 
Bubstantive ;  descriptive,  it  describes  or  qualifies  tlie  morning ;  compared  pos. 
beautiful,  comp.  more  heautiful,  super),  most  leautiful :  iu  the  pmtive  degree,  it 
ascribes  the  quality  simply  ;  and  it  belongs  to  "  morning,''''  according  to  Rule  X. 
(Repeat  it.) 

"All  men." 

Formula. — An  adjective,  and  why ;  the  kind,  and  \k\\j  ;  to  what  it  belongs, 
and  according  to  what  Rule. 

"  AlV  is  an  adjective, — a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning  of  a  sub- 
stantive; definit'ive,  it  limits  or  modifies  the  meaning  of  "me«.;"  and  it  belongs  to 
"  m^/i,"  according  to  Eule  X.    (Repeat  it.) 

Parse  the  following  phrases : —  1 . 

A*  ripe  melon.  An  early  riser.  The  black-winged  redbird. 

A  dark  night.  An  older  man.  The  red-winged  blackbird. 

The  dearest  whistle.       The  whitest  rose.  The  fairest  lady. 


Delightful  scenery.  A  most,^  ingenious  story. 

Flowery  meadows.  The  most**  eloquent  preacher. 

Elegant  furniture.  The  less''  objectionable  place. 

A  more''  beautiful  day.  The  least''  troublesome  servant. 


PAESINQ.  49 

3. 

The  obedient,  kind,  cheerful,  and"*  The  besb  gift. 

industrious  pupil.  John's  bay  horse. 

A  large,  black,  and**  fiery  The  worst  condition. 

cloud.  The  last  interview. 

A  man  bold,  sensible,  sensitive,  A  good  boy's  mother. 

proud,  energetic,  and''  ambitious.  Webster's  most''  eloquent  speech. 

4. 

Yonder  house.  Bach  pupil.  G-round  corn. 

This  tree.  Such  a  person.  Every  fourth  man. 

That  barn.  PurUng  streams.  Those  two  benches. 

These  trees.  Whispering  breezes.  The  lawyer's  own  case. 

Twelve*  Spartan  virgins,  noble,  young,  and  fair, 

With  violet  wreaths  adorned  their  flowing  hair. — Dryden. 

(«.)  "J."  shows  that  no  particular  "  ripe  melon"  is  meant.    (&.)  To  be  omitted  in  parsing^ 
(*)  Parse  the  adjectives  and  the  nouns. 

Nouns. 

Formula. — A  noun^  and  why ;  "^J,^^  [■   and  why ;    collective,    and  wtijr  j 

gender^  and  why ;  person,  and  why ;  number,  and  why ;  case,  and  Rule. 

"  Snow  is  falHng." 

"  Snow''''  is  a  nmm,  it  is  a  name  ;  common,  it  is  a  generic  name  ;  neuter  gender,  it 
denotes  neither  male  nor  female ;  th'ird  per-ion,,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken 
of;  singular  number,  it  means  but  one ;  and  in  the  Twrnlnative  case — it  is  tho  sub- 
ject of  "the  verb  is  falling — according  to  Eule  I.    (Repeat  it.) 

Parse  the  arUcles,  the  adjectives,  and  the  notons  : — 

1. 
David  slew  Groliath".  Mr.  Holmes  taught  Henry*  arithmetic. 

Cattle  eat  grass.  With  Sarah's  pen. 

Cats  catch  fi^ice.  James  the  coachman''  is  sick. 

Across  the  road''.  The  poet  Milton  was  blind. 

Around  the  fire.  Bancroft  the  historian  was  made  chairman^ . 

Th  golden  ringlets.  Greorge  is  a  gentleman  and  a  scholar. 

2. 

Alice®,  bring  your  books,  slate,  and  paper. 
The  boy® — 0  !  where  was  he  ? 
To  be  a  scholar®  requires  mind  and  labor. 
My  mother*  being  sick,  I  remained  at  home. 
The  canal  is  4  feet''  deep,  and  36  feet  wide. 

in.)  "  Goliath"  is  a  noun,  etc.  •  *  •  and  in  the  objective  case — it  is  the  object  of  the  vertr 
$lew — according  to  Rule  IV.  — The  Italicized  words  determine  the  parsing  of  other  words. 

(?>.)  "  Eoad'"  is  a  noun,  etc.  •  *  *  and  in  the  objective  case — ^it  is  the  object  of  the  prep- 
osition around — according  to  Rule  V. 

(0.)  arid  in  the  nominative  case  to  agree  with  "  Jimes"  according  to  Rule  VII. 

('-/.) and  in  the  nominative  case  to  agree  with  "  Bancroft,''^  according  to  Rule  VII. 

(«?.) .  and  in  the  nominative  easo,  according  to  Rule  II. 

(/.) and  ill  the  objecLivj  case — ^liniiti.ig  "  deejf — according  to  Rule  VI. 


50  .  PARSING. 

Pronouns. 

relative,  J 

FoRMDiiA, — A  pronoun, — definition  ;  personal,         >  and  wiiy  ;   gender,  and 

interrogative,  ) 
why;  person,  and  why;  number,  and  why;  case,  and  Rule. 

''I  myself  saw  John  and  his  brother," 

"  /"  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun ;  personal,  it  is  ono 
of  the  pronouns  that  serve  to  distinguish  the  diiferent  persons ;  of  the  common  gen- 
der, it  may  denote  either  a  male  or  a  female  ;  Jirst  person,  it  denotes  tlie  speaker ; 
dngular  number,  it  means  but  one ;  and  in  the  nominative  case — it  is  the  subject  of 
tiie  verb  saw — according  to  Kule  I. 

'■'■Myself''  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  compound,  it 
is  compounded  of  my  and  self;  personal,  etc.  *  *  *  and  in  the  nominative  case  to 
agree  with  "  /,"  according  to  Rule  VII. 

"  Ill'i'''  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  personal,  it  is 
one  of  tiie  pronouns  tliat  serve  to  distinguish  the  ditferent  persons  ;  of  the  masoa- 
Une  gender,  third  person,  and  singular  number,  to  agree  with  "  John,''''  according  to 
Kule  IX  ;  (renaut  it ;)  and  in  i\x<i  p;)ssesdoe  case,  it  limits  the  meaning  of  "  'brother^'' 
according  to  Kule  III.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  Read  thy  doom  in  the  flowers,  which  fade  and  die." 

"  Which^^  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun ;  relative,  it 
makes  its  clause  dependent  on  another ;  ot  the  neuter  gender,  third  person,  and 
plural  numher,  to  agree  witli  ''' fiowers,''''  according  to  Rule  IX ;  (repeat  it ;)  and  in 
the  nominative  case — it  is  the  subject  of  the  werhs  fade  and  die — according  to  Rule  I. 

"  Whom  did  you  see  ?" 

"  Whom''''  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  takes  the  place  of  a  noun;  interrogative,  it 
is  used  to  ask  a  question  ;  of  the  common  gender,  it  may  denote  eitlier  a  male  or  a 
female;  third  person,^  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  singular  number,  it 
means  hut  one  ;  and  in  the  objective  case — it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  d'bd  see — ac- 
cording to  Rule  IV. 

"  James  reads  what  pleases  him." 

'*  WhaV  \'i  ?i  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun;  relative,  it 
makes  its  clause  dependent  on  another  ;  of  the  neuter  gender,  it  denotes  neither  a 
male  nor  a  female  ;  third  person,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  singular  num- 
ber, it  means  but  one  ;  and  it  is  here  used  as  the  object  of  "  reads'''  and  the  subject 
of  '■'pleases,'''' — because  it  takes  the  place  of  tJiat  which  or  thlTig  which, — according  to 
Rule  VIII.    (Repeat  it.) 

"  Nature  deigns  to  bless  whatever  man  will  use  her  gifts  aright." 

"  Whatever''''  is  an  adjective, — a  word  that  qualifies  or  limits  the  meaning  of  n 
substantive  ;  definitive,  it  limits  or  modifies  the  meaning  of  "  man,'"  and  it  belongs 
to  "man,''''  according  to  Rule  X. 

"  Man'''  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name  ;  common,  it  is  a  generic  name,  etc.  *  *  *  and 
it  is  used  here  as  the  object  of ''  to  blebs''''  and  the  subject  of  "  will  use,'''' — because 
the  phrase  whatever  m^n  takes  the  place  of  any  or  every  man  that, — according  to 
Rule  VIII. 

"  I  do  not  know  what  he  is  doing." 

'*  Whaf''  is  ii pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  rehrfive,  it 
makes  its  clause  dependent  on  another  ;  of  the  ne'uler  gender,  it  denotes  neither  a 
male  nor  a  female  ;  third  person,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  s'tngular 
number,  it  means  but  one  ;  and  in  the  objeotive  case — it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  ia 
doing — according  to  Rule  IV. 


PARSING.  51 

"  The  Gaul  offered  bis  own  head  to  whoever  should  bring  him  that  of 
Nero."  "  The  old  bird  feeds  her  young  ones."  "  These  horses  I  received 
for  the  others." 

"  Whoever''^  is  a2^ronoun,—a,  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  compound, 
it  is  compounded  of  who  and  ever  ;  relative,  it  makes  its  clause  dependent  on  an- 
other; oi  Xj\\q  common  gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  '■'■  per 
son,''''  or  "  any  person,''''  understood  before  it, — according  to  Kule  IX;  and  in  the 
nominutive  case — it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  should  give — according  to  Eule  I. 

"  Thaf''  is  aprono'un, — a  word  that  suppnes  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  it  is  here  used 
in  the  place  of  "  the  head,''''  and  is  therefore  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person,  sin- 
gular nMuher  '  and  in  the  oljective  case — being  the  object  of  the  verb  bring — ac- 
curtliug  to  Kule  IV.    "  Ones''''  and  "  others''''  are  parsed  in  a  similar  way. 


Parse  the  articles,  the  ad^ectmes,  the  nowns,  and  tTie  pronouns  ;— 

1.  We  caught  him.  Alfred  dressed  himself'.  Martha  has  recited  her'' 
lesson.  A  dutiful  son  is  the  dehght  of  his  parents.  And  thou"  majestic 
Ooean**!  Ye  golden  clouds  ?  With  me^.  ^o  them,  ^mon.^' themselves. 
From  their  abhorrence  of  each  other*" .  I  saw  your  brother,  who^  was  sick. 
She  who«f  studies  her  glass,  neglects  her  heart.     It  was  I<^  thaf*  went. 

2.  He  was  such  a  talker  as'  could  delight  us  alU.  What^  costs  nothing, 
is  worth^"  nothing*.  He  found  what  he  sought.  Take  whatever  you  like. 
Whatever  you  like,  take.  I  will  leave  what  is  useless.  Who'  was  Blen- 
nerhasset  ?  Who"  is  my  neighbor  ?  Do  you  know  what  democracy  is  ? 
Others  may  he  more  intelligent,  but  none"  are  more  amiable,  than  she  is. 
Your  horse  trots  well,  but  mine"  paces.  Whoever  gives  to  the  poor,  lends 
to  the  Lord. 

Art  thou""  thatJ  traitor J  angel'^,  art  thou™  he', 
Who*  first  broke  peace  in  Heaven? — Milton. 

(a.)  Rule  IV.     (&.)  Rules  IX  and  III.     (c.)  Rule  II.     (d.)  Rule  VII.     (e.)  Rule  V. 

(/.)  '■•Each  other''  is  a. pronoun,  a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun;  compound, 
it  consists  of  two  words ;  of  the  common  gender,  etc. 

{g.)  Rules  IX  and  I.     (A.)  That='Who  ;  hence  a  relative  pronoun,      (i.)  .  was  such 

a  talker  =  — was  a  talker  that  or  who .     {j )  Adjective,     (/f.)  Rule  VIII.     (l.) 

Rule  VII.  Who  was  Blennerhasset?=Blennerhasset  was  who?  (m.)  Rule  I.  To  apply 
Rule  VII  to  «c/w,  would  give  a  different  meauiag  to  the  sentence,  (n.)  Pronoun,  (o.)  Say, 
"ifcTi/fe"  is  here  used  for  "»iy  horse.'^  My  is  a  pronouu,  etc.  (Parse  the  two  words  as 
usual.) 

Vert>s. 

Finite  Verbs. 

farts ;  '^^S'^'^^i        L  and  why ;  the  mood,  and  why  ;  the  tense,  and  why, — with 

form  (emphatic  or  progressive),  and  why ;  the  person  and  nwnber,  to  agree  with 
its  subject ,  according  to  Rule  XL 

"  My  father  is  ploughing  the  field  which  was  bought  last  year." 

"  Is  ploughing'''  is  a  verb, — a  word  used  to  afiirm  something  of  a  subject ;  prin- 
clpal  parts, — pres.  plough,  past  ploughed,  perf.  'p&.rt.  ploughed  ;  regular,  it  takes  the 
inflection  ed  ;  transitive,  it  has  an  object  (field) ;  indicative  mood,  it  aflBrms  some- 
thing as  an  actual  occurrence  or  fact ;  present  tense,  it  expresses  the  act  in  present 
time, — and  progressive  form,  it  represents  it  as  continuing  ;  third  person  an<i  sin- 
gular number, — to  agree  with  its  subject  father, — according  to  Kule  XI.    (Repeat 

"  "Was  houghV  is  a  verb, — a  word  used  to  affirm  something  of  a  subject ;  priT*- 
cipal  parts, — pres.  buy,  past  bought,  perf.  part.  l>ougkt;  irregular,  it  does  not  take  the 

3* 


52  PARSING. 

inflection  ed  ;  passive,  it  afflrmg  the  act  of  the  object  acted  upon ;  indicative  mom/., 
It  asserts  something  as  an  actual  occurrence  or  fact ;  past  tense,  it  refers  the  act 
simply  to  past  time  ;  third  person  aad  singular  number, — to  agree  with  its  subject 
which, — according  to  Rule  XI. 

Participles  and  Infinitives. 

-p  K  participle,   )        (i     i    .    transitive  or  passive,     }_        ^       h    > 

An  infinitive,  )    ^"^    "^  y>    intransitive  or  neuter,    J     ^^      w  y  , 

mrfect     \    ^^^  ^^^' — with /or/?i,  and  why  ;  to  what  it  relates,  and  according  to 

what  Rule.     (XII.) 

In  parsing  a  present  participle,  oraXtform;  and  in  general  omit  of  the  Formitlas  whatever 
18  not  applicable. 

"  The  traveler  having  been  robbed,  was  obliged  to  sell  his  horse." 

"  Raving  heen  rohhed''^  is  a  participle, — an  inflected  form  of  the  verb,  construed 
like  an  adjective,  and  expressing  no  affirmation;  compound,  it  consists  of  tliree 
participles  ;  passive,  it  represents  its  subject  as  acted  upon;  perfect  in  sense,  it  ex- 
presses the  act  or  state  as  past  and  finished  at  the  time  referred  to  ;  and  it  relates  to 
'■'■traveler,''''  according  to  Rule  XII.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  To  selV  is  an  infinitive, — a  form  of  the  verb  beginning  usually  with  to,  and 
expressing  no  affirmation  ;  transitice,  it  has  an  object ;  present,  it  denotes  the  act 
simply  ;  and  it  relates  to  "  traveler,'"  and  completes  the  sense  of  "  was  obliged,''''  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XII. 

"  To  betray  is  base."     "  I  insist  on  writing  the  letter." 
"7b  'betray'''  is  an  intransitive,  active,  present  infimtive,  from  the  verb  betray,  be- 
trayed,  betrayed.    It  is  here  used  also  as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person, 
singular  r^umber  '  and  in  the  nominative  case — being  the  subject  of  the  verb  is — 
according  to  Rule  I. 

"  Writing''''  is  a  transitive,  active,  present  participle,  from  the  verb  write,  wrote, 
written.  It  is  here  used  also  as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singukir 
number  ;  and  in  the  objective  case — being  the  object  of'  the  preposition  on — accord- 
ing to  Rule  V. 

"  It  affords  us  pleasure  to  have  seen  the  rising  sun  attended  by  so  many 
beautiful  clouds." 

"  To  have  seen'''  is  a  transitive,  active,  perfect  infinitive,  from  the  verb  see,  saw, 
seen.  It  is  here  used  also  as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular 
number ,'  and  in  the  nominative  case,  to  agree  with  "  /i,"  according  to  Rule  VII. 

"  Bising''''  is  an  adjective, — a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning  of  a  sub- 
stantive; participial,  it  is  a  participle — from  the  verb  rise,  rose,  risen — ascribing 
the  act  or  state  to  its  subject  as  a  quality  ;  it  can  not  be  compared  with  propriety, 
and  belongs  to  "  sw/i"  according  to  Rule  X. 

"  Attended''''  is  a  participle, — an  inflected  form  of  the  verb,  construed  like  an 
adjective,  and  expressing  no  affirmation  ;  passive,  it  represents  its  subject  as  acted 
upon  ;  perfect  in  form — but  present  in  sense,  for  it  represents  the  act  or  state  as 
present  aiid  continuing  at  the  time  referred  to  ;  and  it  relates  to  "  sun,''''  according 
to  Rule  XII. 

Parse  the  articles,  adjectives,  nouns,  pronouns,  finite  verbs,  participles,  and  infini- 
tives : — 

1. 
Columbus  discovered  Ana  erica.   The  storm  roars. 
We  love  our  friends.  Birds  fly.         It  was  I*. 

Susan  spilt  the  ink.  The  leaves  quiver, 

fortune  favors  him.  Rivers  flow,  and  stars  twinkle. 

They  struck  rae.  The  sunny  stream  glitters. 

Tl^e  tall  pines  rustle.  The  tall  pines  are  rustling. 


PAKSING.  53 


The  rose  is  beautiful.  Ponds  may  be  deep. 

Fierce  was  the  conflict.  You  might  have  been  more  unfortunate. 

John  will  become  rich.  The  horses  might  have  been  fed. 

Have  you  been  sick  ?  The  lady  may  kave  been  handsome. 

He  was  the  leader.  The  apples  may  have  been  eaten. 

Horace  struts  a  dandy".  Washington  was  patriotic. 

She  was  named  Mary*.  The  soldiers  will  be  attacked. 

]  was  asked  some  questions^.  Reckless  youth  makes  rueful  age. 

They  made  him  captain*.  Joseph  has  lost  his  hat. 

He  was  made  captain*.  The  tailor  will  have  finished  your  coat. 

He  is  said  to  be''  the  captain*.  Be  sincere.     (Be  thou  sincere.) 

Man  is  made  to  mourn".  Move  your  desk. 

Pompey  was  stabbed.  Hope  and  persevere. 

The  summer  day  is  closed — the  sun  is  set"^. 

The  highest  branch  is  not  the  safest  roost*. 

The  young  twig  has  spread  its  flowerets  to  the  sun. 

Do  you  venture  a  small  fish  to  catch  a  great  one®. 

3. 

The  distant  hills  look  blue.  You  must  write  a  composition,  William 
can  read  Latin.  Can  you  spell  ^'phthisic''?  James  would  go.  Mary  could 
have  learned  her  lessons.  We  should  love  our  neighbors.  Did  you  go  ? 
Has  the  instructor  left  the  room  ?  Time  and  thinking  tame  the  strongest 
grief.  To  err'  is  human ;  to  forgive,  divine.  Of  making  many  books, 
there  is  no  end.  Reprove  not  a  scorner,  lost  he  hate  thee.  If  he  were 
economical,  he  would  prosper. 

While  he  went  trudging*  on  foot,  wearying  himself  and  wasting  his 
time,  people  came,  grew  weary,  and  would  not  wait.  Here  was  an  op- 
portunity«f  to  grow  rich.  I  ordered  him""  to  be  brought.  It  is  the  duty  of 
every  one,  to  cultivate*  the  heart  and  mind.  Little  meddUng  makes  fair 
parting.  How  are  the  mighty  J  fallen  !  Let  Love**  have"  eyes,  and  Beauty 
will  have  ears.  0  silvery  streamlet'  of  the  fields,  that  flovvest  full  and  free. 
Now  May,  with  life  and  music,  the  blooming  valley  fills.  To  die', — it  is 
an  awful  thing  I  —  Had  Homer  and  Yirgil  changed^  subjects,  they  had  cer- 
tainly been  worse  poets  at  G-reece  and  Rome,  whatever  they  had  been 
esteemed  by  the  rest  of  mankind. — Pope. 

(a.)  Rule  Vir,      (&.)  Rule  VI.      (c.)  Rule  XII.       (d.) "  is  set"  =has  set.      (e.) 

"  one"  is  used  in   the  place  of  "^s/i  "     (/.)  Rule  I.     (g.)  That  is, an  opportunity /or 

Wm  or  ctn^  o?ie  to  grow  rich.      (A.)  Rule  IV.      (i.)  Rule  II.      {j.) ■  ^' the  miglitir' =  the- 

mighty  raea.      (k.)  •■'■Had,  changed,"    "  Aii  been"  {=wo\i\i  have   been),  and  '■'■  fuid   been 
enUemed''  (=might  have  been  esteemed),  are  in  the  subjunctive  mood. 

Adverbs. 

Formula. — An  adverb,  and  why  ;  if  it  may  be  compared,  say  so,  and  how , 
oiwhat  kind;  to  what  it  belongs,  and  according  to  what  Rule  or  Note. 

"  The  trees  are  waving  beautifully." 

^'•Beautifully'''  ia  an  adverb,  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb  (are  waving) ;  it 
may  be  compared,— -pos.  beautifally,  comp.  more  beautifully,  superl.  mo^t  beaati- 
fvUy'  it  is  an  adverb  of  manner  or  quality ;  and  it  belongs  to  tlie  verb  a/re  waving 
according  to  Rule  XIII.     (Kepeat  of  tiie  Kale  as  much,  us  is  applicable.) 


54  PAESING. 

"  G-ather  roses  while  they  bloom." 

"  WTiile'''  is  an  adverb, — a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  an  adverb ;  it  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  of  time ;  and  it  belongs  to  both  the 
verb  gather  and  the  verb  lloom,  according  to  Eule  XIII.     Or  say, — 

"  WldW''  is  an  advert, — a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  an  adverb ;  conjunctive,  it  connects  its  own  clause  to  another  to  express 
the  time,  according  to  Note  XIII. 

"  Can  not  you  go  too  ?" 

'■'■  NoV  is  an  admrl, — a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  an  adverb ;  it  is  an  adverb  of  negation ;  and  it  modifies  the  verb  can  go 
with  reference  to  '■'•you,''''  and  therefore  belongs  to  them,  according  to  Eule  Xlli. 
(Repeat  it.) 

Parse  the  articles,  adjectives,  nouns,  pronouns,  verts,  and  adverts : — 
1.  Adverbs  Modifying    Verbs. 
The  horse  galloped  gracefully.  My  father  has  just  come. 

The  birds  sung  sweetly.  The  leaves  must  soon  fall. 

The  water  flows  rapidly.  God  rules  everywhere. 

Mary  sews  and"  knits  well.  Here  will  I  stand. 

2.    Adverbs  Modifying  Adjectives. 
Her  child  was  very  young.  He  is  perfectly  honest. 

The  music  rose  softly  sweet.  My  hat  is  almost  new. 

John  is  most  studious.  The  wound  was  intensely  painful. 

3.    Adverbs  Modifying  Adverbs. 

Some  horses  can  run  very  fast.         Thomas  is  not  very  industrious. 
He  stutters  nearly  always.  The  field  is  not  entirely  planted. 

You  must  come  very  soon.  She  had  been  writing  very  carefully. 

4    3fisceUan60tis  IXnamples. 

Smack  went  the  whip,  round  went  the  wheels.  Be  always  sincere. 
Flowers  come  forth  early.  As**  you  sow,  so"*  you  shall  reap.  In  vain  Ve 
seek  for'  perfect  happiness'^ .  Sadly  and  slowly  we  laid  him  down.  We 
carved  not^  a  line,  we  raised  not  a  stone.  But*  he  lay  Uke  a  warrior" 
taking  his  rest.     The  soldier  died  where  he  fell. 

You  have  advanced  not  far  enough  yet  Even^  from  the  tomb  tlie 
voice  of  nature  cries.  These  scenes,  once  so*"  delightful,  no  longer  please 
him.  The  dew  glitters  when  the  sun  rises.  Joseph  behaved  as  I  requested 
him  to  behave. 

Yainly  but  well  that  chief  had  fought, 

Pie  was  a  captive  now ; 
Yet*  pride  that*  fortune  humbles  not. 

Was  written  on»  his  brow. — Bryant. 

(a.)  Words  belonging  to  the  parts  of  speech  not  yet  learned  by  the  pupil,  may  be  omitted. 
(b.)  Manner,  (c.)  Rule  V.  (rf.)  "■Not"  limits  the  meaning  of  '■'■carved"  in  respect  to 
"  a  line."  (e.)  "  Even"  modifies  the  phrase  '■'■from  the  tomb"  or.  rather,  it  moflifics  the 
Terb  cries  with  reference  to  the  phras>3  '■'■from  the  tomb."  Adjuncts=adverbs  or  adjectives- 
hence,  of  course,  adverbs  can  modify  them,  and  not,  as  some  grammarians  teach,  the  prepo- 
iitjoa  onl^.    (/.)  Degree. 


PARSING.  55 

Prepositions. 

Formula. — A  preposition, — definition ;  between  what  it  shows  the  relation : 
Rule. 

"  The  water  flows  over  the  dam." 

"C>»(?r"  is  a  preposition,— o.  word  used  to  show  the  relation  between  different 
things  ;  it  here  shows  the  relation  of  '■'•  flows'''  to  "  dam,''''  according  to  Kule  XIV 
(Eepeat  it.) 


Parse  all  the  words  except  the  conjunctions  : — 

1. 

I  found  a  dollar  in  the  road.  In  spring,  the  leaves  come  forth.  We 
should  not  live  beyond  our  means.  I  stuck  a  thorn  into  my  thumb.  He 
f^truggled  manfully  against  the  evils  of  fortune.  An  eagle  rose  near*  the 
city,  and  flew  over  it  far  away  beyond  the  distant  hills.  We  traveled  from 
New  York  to  Washington  City,  by  railroad,  in  eight  hours.  As  to  the 
policy  of  the  measure,  I  shall  vsay  nothing.  The  river  is  washing  the  soil 
from  under  the  tree.     I  caught  a  turtle  instead''  of  a  fish. 

2. 
A  line  of  woody  hills  stretched  into  the  vast  level  prairie,  like  a  prom- 
ontory into  the  bosom  of  the  ocean. — Irving. 

There  stood  a  forest  on  the  mountain's  brow, 

Which  overlooked  the  shaded  plains  below ; 

No  sounding  axe  presumed  those  trees  to  bite, 

Coeval  with  the  world,  a  venerable  sighf^. — Dry  den's  Virgil. 

(a.)  Rule  X.  (b.)  '■'Instead  of"  is  better  written  and  parsed  as  three  words,  (c.) 
Rule  VII. 

ConjuEictiojns. 

Formula. — A  conjunction,  and  why ;  its  peouliar  nature :  what  it  eonnocts  ; 
Rule  XV. 

"  The  meadow  produces  grass  and  flowers." 

"  AniV  is  a  conjunction, — a  word  that  joins  something  to  d,nother  part  of  the 
discourse,  and  shows  how  the  parts  so  connected  are  viewed  with  respect  to  each 
other  ;  it  implies  simply  continuance,  or  that  somethinsr  more  i.-*  added  ;  ani  it  con- 
nects the  words  grass  a,nd flowers,  according  to  Rule  XV. 

"  You  must  either  buy  mine  or  sell  yours." 

"  EitJier''''  is  a  conjunction,  a  word,  etc.  *  *  *  it  corresponds  to  "or",  and  assists 
it  in  co-meeting  two  phrases  according  to  Rule  XV. 

^  *'  C>r"  is  a  conjunction,  etc.  *  *  *  it  is  alternative,  or  allows  but  one  of  the 
things  offered,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest;  it  liere  corresponds  to  "■  e'ither''\  and 
connects  two  phrases  according  to  Rule  XV. 

Parse  all  the  words : — 

Learning  refines  and  elevates  the  mind.  Eagles  generally  go  alone,  but 
little  birds  go  in  flocks.  I  know  this  peach  is  good,  because  it  is  ripe.  I 
know'  this  peach  is  good,  because  I  have  tasted  it.     The  silk  was  light- 


56  PARSING. 

blue,  or  sky-colored,  though  it  should  have  been  white  or  black.  Unless 
you  Uve  virtuously,  you  can  not  be  happy.  You  must  write  immediately, 
unless  you  have  already  written.  Again,  every  man  is  entitled  to  com- 
pensation for  his  services.  If  it  rain  to-morrow,  we  shall  have  to  remain 
at  home. 

He  was  always  courteous  to  wise  and  gifted  men ;  for  he  knew  that 
talents,  though  in  poverty,  are  more  glorious  than  birth  or  riches  [are]. 
Sin  may  give  momentary  pleasure ;  but  the  pain  is  sure  to  follow''. 
Whether  my  brother  come  or  not,  I  will  either  buy  or  rent  the  farm. 
Neither  precept  nor  discipUne  is  so  forcible  as  example  [is].  Though  he  is 
poor,  yet  he  is  honest.  If  you  can  not  resist  sin,  then  avoid  temptation. 
The  mother,  as  well  as  the  father,  should  be  inteUigent.  I  will  pardon  you, 
inasmuch  as  you  repent.  He  has  labored  long  and  diligently,  and  yet  he 
is  still  poor. 

I  have  no  mother,  for  she  died 
When  I  was  very  young  ; 

But  her  memory  still  around  my  heart, 
Like  morning  mists,  has  hung. 

(a.)  Transitive.  "  This  peach  is  good"  or  that  this  peach  is  good,  is  here  used  as  a  noun 
of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  objective  case — being  the 
object  of  '■'■knou}" — according  to  iiule  IV.    Now  parse  "  this,"  etc.,  as  before.     (6.)  li.  XII. 

Interjections. 

Formula. — An  interjection,  and  why ;  its  peculiar  nature  or  meaning ; 
Ilule. 

"  Alas !  no  hope  for  me  remains." 

"  Alas''''  is  an  interjection,  it  expresses  an  emotion  only,  and  is  not  connected  in 
construction  with  any  other  word  ;  it  liere  implies  grieJt'or  dejection  ;  and  it  is  used 
independently,  according  to  Kule  XVI. 

Parse  all  the  words : — 

0,  young  Lochinvar  is  come  out  of  the  West.  Ah  !  *few^''A  shall  part 
where  many^o^  meet!  0  Desdemona'' 1  Desdemona  !  dead"?  Dead  I 
Oh!  oh!  oh! 

The  tree  blossoms  sweetly.  Sweet  blossoms  adorn  the  tree.  Grive 
what"  you  can  spare.  What'  is  that  yonder  ?  I  know  not  wiiat'  it  is. 
What^"  a  simpleton. he  is!  PFAa^'is  a  pronoun.  Is  is  is^  WhaL^M  shall 
we  never  liave  any  rest  ?  The  train  from  out  the  castle  drew  ;  but  Mar- 
mion  stopped  to  bid  adieu. 

(a.)  Art  thou  dead? 


For  abridged  or  "  skeleton"  parsing,  proceed  precisely  m  the  same  way 
as  heretofore  siiown,  with  the  exception  of  omitting  the  reasons. 

"John  is  reading."  "JoA/i"  is  a  noun  ;  proj^er  ;  masculine  gender;  tliird person  ; 
singular  number  ;  and  in  the  nominative  case — it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  reading 
• — according  to  Eule  I. 

"/«  reading^''  is  a  verb  ;  principal  parts, — read,  read,  read  5  irregular;  intransi- 
tice  ;  indicative  tnood  ;  present  tense,  and  ^rogressive/orm  ;  thvrd  person  and  singu- 
lar number,  to  agree  with  "  John,''''  according  10  Rule  XI. 

*  In  these  and  all  future  parsing  lessons,  a  number  placed  over  a  word,  indicates  tli« 
RuJe  to  be  applied  to  it;  uad  a  caret  shows  where  words  are  to  be  supplied. 


PARSINQ.  57 


Miscellaneous  Examples. 
1. 
I  have  found  violets,  fresh  young  violets^ — Willis. 
Our  Hfe  i3  one  long  lesson. — Boker. 

Self-love  is  not  so  great  a  sin  as"  self-neglecting^ — Shakespeare. 
He  should  consider  often,  who*  *  *  can  choose  but**  once. 
It  is  knowledge  enough  for  some  people,  to  know^  how  far  they  can 
proceed  in  mischief  with  impunity. — British  Essayists. 

The  question  of  what*  °'"  *•*  are  to  be  the  powers^  of  the  crown,  is  supe- 
rior to  that*  of  who*  is  to  wear"  it. — Fox. 

It  was  very  prettily  said,   "  We  may  learn  the  little  value  of  fortune, 
by  the  persons  on  whom  Heaven  is  pleased  to  bestow  it." — Steele. 
Talent  is  full  of  thoughts;  but  G-enius^,  full  of  thought. 
Sweet  clime^  of  my  kindred,  blest  land  of  my  birth  1 
The  fairest  A,  the  dearest  a,  the  brightest  a,  on  earth  I 
Accordingly,  a  company  assembled**  armed*''  and  accoutred,  and,  hav- 
ing procured*^  a  fieldpiece,  appointed**  Major  Harrison  commander^,  and 
proceeded  to  accomplish*''  their  design. — History  of  Ohio. 

The  Assyrian  came  down*^  hke**  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold  ; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like*"  stars  on  the  sea, 
When  the  blue  waves  roll  nightly  on  deep  Gralilee. — Byron. 


My  warriors  fell  around  me ;  it  began  to  look  dismal.  I  saw  my  evil 
day  at  hand.  The  sun  rose  dim  on  us  in  the  morning ;  and  at  night  it 
wank  in  a  dark  cloud,  and  looked  like  a  ball  of  fire.  That*"  was  the  last 
sun  that"  *  *  shone  on  Black  Hawk.  His  heart  is  dead,  and  no*^*  longer 
beats  quick*"  in  his  bosom.  He  is  now  a  prisoner  to  the  white  men ;  they 
will  do  with  him  as  they  wish.  But  he  can  stand  torture,  and  is  not 
afraid*"  of  death.  He  is  no*"  coward.  Black  Hawk  is  an  Indian, — Black 
Hawk. 

3. 
Though  the  world  smile  on  you  blandly. 

Let**  your  friends  be*''  choice*"  and  few ; 
Choose  your  course,  pureue  it  grandly. 

And  achieve  what''  you  pursue. — T.  B.  Read. 

4. 

Sweet  is  the  breath  of  Morn,  her  rising*  a  sweet 
With  charm  of  earliest  birds ;  pleasant  the  Sun, 
When  first  on  this  delightful  land  he  spreads 
His  orient  beams — on  herb,  tree,  fruit,  and  flower, 
Glisteniug  with  dew ;  fragrant  the  fertile  Earth 
Ai'ter  soft  ehowers ;  and  sweet  the  coming-on 
Of  grateful  Evening  mild  ;  then  silent  Night, 
With  this  her  solemn  bird,  and  this  fair  Moon, 
And  these  the  gems  of  Heaven,  her  stairy  train. — Milton. 
3* 


SITOl'SIS  #f  MIT  S1€«I». 


1.  Introductory  Vi«;w. — Grammar;  English  Grammar;  its 
parts. 

2.  ProniinciatiOBi* — Letters  and  elementary  sounds  ;  accent ; 
exercises ;  observations. 

3.  Orthography. — Capital  letters,  with  exercises;  syllables; 
rules  of  spelling,  with  exercises. 

4.  Derivation  of  Words. — Prefixes  and  suffixes,  with  exer- 
cises. 

5.  IVouns  and  Pronouns. — Classes  of  each;  properties; 
exercises ;  observations.     See  Synopsis  of  Part  First. 

6.  Article§. — Principles;  exercises;  observations. 

T.  Adjectives. — Classes;  degrees  of  comparison;  pronominal 
adjectives  defined  ;  exercises  ;  observations. 

8.  Verbs. — Classes  ;  properties  ;  auxiliary  verbs ;  participles  and 
infinitives ;  conjugation  ;  exercises  ;  observations.  See  Synopsis  of 
Part  First. 

9.  Adverbs. — Principles  ;  exercises  ;  observations. 

10.  Prepositions. — Principles;  illustrations;  constructions; 
exercises ;  observations. 

11.  Conjunctions. — Principles;  illustrations;  exercises;  ob- 
servations. 

12.  Interjections. — Principles;  exercises;  observations. 

13.  Rhetorical  Devices. — Equivalent  expressions  ;  arrange- 
ment ;  ellipsis  ;  pleonasm ;  exercises. 

14.  Rhetorical  Figures. — Definitions  and  illustrations; 
exercises ;  observations. 

15.  Versification. — Principles ;  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  difi"erent  specimens  of  verse,  scanned  ;  observations. 

16.  Analysis  of  Sentences. — Principles,  with  exercises ;  sen- 
tences analyzed  ;  exercises;  summary  of  analysis  and  description. 

17.  Punctuation. — Period;  colon;  semicolon;  comma;  in- 
terrogation-point; exclamation-point;  dash;  curves;  brackets;  hy- 
phen; underscore;  observations;  miscellaneous  marks. 


PART      SECOND. 


1.    INTRODUCTORY  VIEW. 

Orammar  treats  of  language.  Taken  in  its  widest 
sense,  the  Grammar  of  a  language  shows  how  its  words 
are  formed,  modilied,  and  arranged,  to  express  thoughts, 
either  in  speaking  or  in  writing,  according  to  established 
usage. 

The  word  Guammar  means  marks  or  writing  ;  because  mankind  did  not  feel  the  necessity  ofstu.lv- 
ing  languiise,  till  they  came  to  write  it,  and  so  lirstdevised  the  science  of  writing.  SciKNCii  is  method- 
ised  linotcledge. 

Language,  so  far  as  Grammar  is  concerned  with  it,  pertains  to  words,  and  is 
citlier  spoken  or  written.  Objects,  actions,  and  sounds  not  articulate,  may  also  be 
occasionally  used  as  language,  which  is  sometimes  termed  natural  or  symbolic 
language. 

Language  not  only  exists,  but  lives,  grows,  and  decays.  It  is  not  a  dead  mech- 
anism, but  a  living  organism.  Words,  and  modes  of  expression,  are  constantly 
coming  into  use  ;  others,  passing  out  of  use ;  and  others,  assuming  new  burdens 
of  meaning,  and  perhai^s  losing  their  old. 

Not  only  Grammar,  but  also  Logic  and  Khetoric  treat  of  langu:ige.  Gram- 
mar looks  to  the  vehicle,  Logic  and  Rhetoric  regard  rather  what  is  conveyed  : 
these,  learned  in  one  language,  generally  suffice  for  any  other ;  but  it  is  not  so 
with  Grammar,  Logic,  in  reference  to  language,  teaches  how  thoughts  are 
rightly  expressed  in  regard  to  truth  and  reason ;  Rhetoric,  how  they  are  ex- 
pressed so  as  to  make  the  most  vivid  and  effectual  impressioa.  A  geometry 
displays  most  logic,  and  a  book  of  poems  most  rhetoric. 


EaiglisSi  $xra»iaiiar  teaches  how  to  speak  and  write  the 
English  language  correctly.     This  is  the  practical  view. 

It  is  a  thorough  analysis,  or  anatomy,  of  the  language,  completely 
laying  open  its  nature  in  general  principles^  and  especially  teaching 
those  properties  in  respect  to  which  we  are  liable  to  misuse  it,  or  at 
least  those  on  which  its  right  construction  depends.  This  is  the 
philosophical  view. 

English  Grammar  may  be  divided  into  five  parts ;  Pronuncia- 
tion, Orthograpy,  Etymology^  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

PiiONUNCiATiON  means  uttering  forth,  aloud ;  oiiTHOGRAPnY,  correct  writing  ;  ettmologt,  tk» 
tr-iir.  nature  of  words  ;  syntax,  placing  together  ;  and  pkosody,  tone  added,  aud  thence,  whatever  in 
added  to  the  least  adorned  language,  to  make  it  clearer  or  more  expressive. 

What  is  Baid  of  Grammar?    English  Grammar?    Into  how  many  parts  divided? 


60  PRONUNCIATION. ELEMENTARY    SOUNDS. 

ProBiusiclatioii  treats  of  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  and  of 
the  sounds  and  stress  of  syllables  in  the  utterance  of  separate  words. 

Orthography  treats  of  the  forms  of  letters,  and  teaches  how 
to  spell  words  correctly. 

IGtyamology,  in  its  popular  sense,  is  the  history  of  words;  but 
in  grammar  it  merely  denotes  the  part  which  classifies  words,  and 
teaches  those  properties  and  modifications  which  adapt  them  to  the 
formation  of  sentences. 

Syaitax  treats  of  the  relations  and  proper  arrangement  of  words 
in  the  formation  of  sentences. 

Prosody,  in  its  narrowest  sense,  treats  of  versification ;  in  its 
widest  sense,  of  figures,  versification,  utterance,  and  punctuation. 

9.    PRONUNCIATION. 

Our  language  has  about  forty  elementary  sounds,  which  are 
represented  by  twenty-six  letters,  called  the  alphabet. 

The  Vhon&Xid&n^  rni\kQ  forty-three  eleraentary  soxindiA.  Loxa  vowels:  eel,  ale, 
arm,  «11,  ope,  food.  Shout  vowels,  in,  ell,  an,  add,  -wp,  foot.  Shade  vowels: 
eaxih.,  air,  ask.  Diphthongs  :  isle,  oil,  owl,  raulQ.  Coalescents  :  yea,  way.  As, 
piKATE :  Aay.  Explodents  :  rojoe,  ro5e,  tiite,  fa^^e,  etcA,  ed^e,  locA;,  lo^.  Continu- 
ants :  sa/e,  save,  wrea^A,  wreat'Ae,  bus-?,  \)nzz,  vicious,  vision.  Liquids  :  iidl,  ior. 
Nasal  Liquids  :  seew,  see»,  ^Ing.  Of  these,  a  in  add  and  a  in  an  are  the  same  ; 
and  oi  and  oil  or  ow  are  coinpouads  equivalent  to  a-i  and  a-oo  ;  so  that  we  have 
but  forty  elementary  sounds.  If  c  as  heard  in  citron,  is  more  slender  than  s  as 
heard  in  sister  ;  and  if  o  as  heard  in  form,  is  broader  than  a  as  heard  in  all, — then 
there  are  forty-two  elementary  sounds  in  all. 

The  parts  of  the  throat  and  mouth,  by  means  of  which  the  letters  are 
pronounced,  are  called  the  organs  of  speech.  These  are  the  glottis,  palate, 
tongue,  teeth,  and  lips. 

The  elemeaitary  souaids  are  either  inarticulate  or  articulate. 

The  inarticulate  sounds  are  simple  sounds  formed  by  keeping  the 
organs  of  speech  more  or  less  apart  or  open. 

The  articulate  sounds  are  simple  sounds  that  begin  or  end  in  a 
closing  of  some  of  the  organs  of  speech. 

ArticiMte  means  "jointed;"  inarticulate,  "not  jointed."  These  words  are  Rpplied  to  speech, 
from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  syllables  in  a  word  to  the  parts  of  a  jointed  plant;  thus,  in-wi- 
ic-al,  en-ter-tain-i/ient.  Here  the  sound,  like  the  pith,  is  trolcen  or  stopped  at  certain  points ;  and 
n,  m,  c,  I,  and  t,  serve  as  partitions  iu  the  sound,  like  the  joints    in  the  pith  of  a  reed  or  stalk. 

A  letter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  one  or  more  of  the 
elementary  sounds  of  language ;  or  it  is  the  least  distinct  part  of  a 
written  word. 

A  letter  generally  has  for  its  name  one  of  the  munds,  or  powers,  which  it  represents. 

Sometimes  two  or  more  letters  represent  but  one  elementary 
sound. 

Ex. — T*'h'=f,  as  Ivifldeme',  eau='0,  as  in  heau ;  ch,  in  church;  th,  in  tho'ii. 

What  is  said  of  Pronunciation?  Orthoj^raphy?  Etymolo,?y?  Syntax?  Prosody? 
What  do  you  Itnow  of  the  original  meaning  of  these  terras  ?  Our  language  has  how  many 
elemimtary  sounds?  Elementary  sounds  are  of  what  two  kinds  ?  What  is  an  inarticulate 
p  )Utid  ?    An  articulate  sound  ?    A  loiter  t 


PRONUNCIATION. LETTERS    AND    THEIR    SOUNDS,  61 

The  letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants  ;  the  conso- 
nants, into  mutes  and  semivowels ;  and  some  of  the  semivowels  are 
called  liquids. 

This  division  of  the  letters  not  only  distingulslies  them  according  to  their  na- 
ture, but  is  the  basis  of  many  valuable  rules. 

The  voivels  are  a,  e,  i^  o,  u/  also  w  and  y,  when  not  followed 
by  a  vowel  sound  in  the  same  syllable. 

They  can  be  sounded  alone,  and  represent  each  several  inarticu- 
late elementary  sounds.     (Except  w.) 

Ex. — Fate,  fare,  fat,  far,  fall ;  me,  met ;  fine,  fin,  fatigue ;  no,  not,  dove, 
prove,  book;  Mse,  as,  fi^U ;  city,  cry;  brow,  dew,  hot/. 

The  eoiiKOfiiants  are  all  the  letters  except  the  vowels. 

They  are  so  called  because  they  can  not  be  sounded  alone ;  or 
rather,  when  they  are  uttered  alone,  the  sound  of  a  vowel  is  always 
heard  with  them. 

Ex. — B,  c,  d,f,  m,  h,  are  pronounced  as  if  written  be,  se,  de,  ef,  em,  ka. 

TF"  or  y  is  a  consonant  when  a  vowel  sound  follows  it  in  the  same 
syllable ;  as  in  water,  young,  year,  Iowa,  Banyan. 

Z7"and  i  are  consonants  when  equivalent  to  the  consonants  w  and  y  ;  as  in  per- 
suade,  poniard. — X=lcs,  gz,  or  z;  as  in  tax,  exalt,  Xerxes. 

The  tnutes  have  no  sound  whatever  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel, 
and  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  stop  the  voice  entirely. 

They  are  h, p,  d,  t,  k,  q\i  {:=kw)  ;  also  c  and  (/  when  hard,  as  in 
lac,  gig. 

The  semivowels  -are  all  the  consonants  except  the  mutes; 
They  are  so  called,  because  they  are,  in  their  nature,  between  vowels 
and  mutes ;  having  some  sound  by  themselves. 

The  liquids  are  I,  m,  n,  r,  and  perhaps  s  ;  so  called  from  their 
soft  sound,  which  easily  flows  into  and  unites  with  that  of  other 
letters. 

Ex. — Lily,  million,  brilliant,  Albion,  Columbia,  mammon,  Alps,  pearl,  stamp, 
bring,  volleying. 

"  Lull  with  Amelia's  liquid  name  the  Nine." — Fope. 

A  diphthongs  is  two  vowels  joined  and  blended  in  one  sound. 

Ex. — Blood,  doom,  boy,  rownd,  earn,  crow,  now,  vain,  play. 

A  diphthong  is  proper,  if  the  two  vowels  are  heard,  or  form  a 

sound  different  from  that  of  either ;  improper^  if  only  one  vowel  is 

hoard. 

Ex. — 6>il,  grownd,  room,  joy,  hrow,  fraud,  ^agle,  heart,  mowrn,  fair,  sleight, 
deceit. 

A  triphthong  is  three  vowels  joined  and  blended  in  one  sound. 
Ex. — Beauty,  bureau,  view,  huoy. 

How  are  the  letters  classified  ?  What  can  you  say  of  vowels  ?  Consonants  ?  W  and  y  f 
Mates?     Liquids?    Dix)hthongs?    Triphthongs? 


CS  PRONUNCIATION. ACCENT. 

Triphthongs  are  also  divided,  like  diphthono-s,  into  proper  and 
imp>roper,  according  as  the  vowels  are  all  sounded  or  not  all  sounded. 

A  letter  is  said  to  be  silent,  when  it  is  suppressed  in  pronuncia- 
tion. 

Ex. — Wafk,  kil»,  mghi,  for^i^n,  vwtoals,  Aour. 

The  pronunciation  of  discourse  by  means  of  letters,  may  be  compared  to  raupic  from  a  flute  or 
other  similar  instrument.  The  vowels  are  analogous  to  the  diiferent  notes  or  tones:  they  nlToid  tho 
sound.  The  consonants  resemble  the  stoppages  by  means  of  the  tinkers.  Not  any  or  every  airanKu- 
ment  of  letters  makes  lansuajre  ;  nor  will  any  or  every  mode  of  playing  produce  music. — In  singiug, 
vowel  sounds  are  made  most  prominent. 

Mention  the  voweU,  consonants,  mutes,  semivowels,  liquids,  silent  letters  ;  also  tlie  diph- 
thongs and  triphthongs,  and  of  wliat  kind : — 

0,  b,  d,  e,  i,  f,  a,  m,  u,  r,  s,  f,  1,  q,  y,  g,  z,  announcement,  analytical,  history, 
czar,  revolution,  youthful,  years,  gorgeous,  colorings,  clang,  oyster,  weight,  sleight, 
Btreak,  steak,  phthisic;  sparkling  fountains. — Kome  was  an  ocean  of  flame.  Height 
and  depth  were  covered  with  rod  surges,  that  rolled  before  the  blast  like  an  end- 
less tide. 


Letters  are  formed  into  syUahle^,  and  syllables  into  words. 

The  simple  or  obvious  sounds  of  language  as  we  hear  it  spoken,  are 


When  more  syllables  than  one  make  a  word,  we  admit  into  the  pro- 
nunciation what  is  called  accent. 

ACCENT. 

Accent  is  a  distinguishing  stress  on  some  syllable  of  a  word 
having  two  or  more  syllables. 

Ex. — Ba'-ker,  a-muse'',  con'-ti-nent,  con-tent''-ment,  coun-ter-aet'',  tem^-per-a- 
ment,  ge-o-graph'-ic-al ;  to  con-tract',  a  con'-tract.  "  Not  the  les-sor^,  but  the  les- 
see''."   "  An  au-gust'  procession,  in  the  month  of  Au'-gust." 

The  common  or  word  accent  seems  to  have  been  introduced  into  lan^age  to  distinguish 
syllables  that  are  themselves  words,  from  those  which  are  only  parts  of  words.  An  accented 
syllable  at  once  indicates,  that  there  are  other  syllables  about  it  forming  a  part  of  the  same 
word.  _  Accent,  moreover,  contributes  to  eciphony,  and  to  ease  of  utterance.  It  also  serves 
to  distinguish  words  from  others  in  some  way  related  to  them  ;  and  sometimes,  to  show  the 
most  important  part  of  the  word.  An  eminent  German  grammarian  says,  "  As  soon  as  lan- 
guage proceeds  from  mere  articulation  to  coherency  and  connection,  accent  becomes  the 
guide  of  the  voice." 

Words  of  three  or  more  syllables  generally  have  a  chief  accent, 

called  the  primary  accent ;  and  one  or  more  inferior  accents,  called 

the  secondary  accent  or  accents. 

Ex. — Lu'-mi-n^-ry,  coun-ter-act',  kn-te-ce'-dent,  ep-i-gram-mat'-ic,  in-dein- 
ni-fi-ca'-tion,  in-com-pre-hen-si-biF-i-ty. 

Some  words,  mostly  compounds,  have  two  accents  of  nearly  equal 

stress. 

Ex.— A'-men',  fare'-well'!  down'-falF,  knit'ting-nee'dle,  e^vea-hand'ed,  lin'- 
Bey-wooFsey. 

To  pronounce  well,  it  is  important  to  know  the  elementary  sounds  and  their 
combinations,  to  divide  words  accurately  into  syllables,  and  to  know  which  syllable 

What  can  you  say  of  triphthongs  ?  When  is  a  letter  silent?  What  is  said  of  letters,  syl- 
lables, and  accent?  What  is  accent?  What  are  some  of  its  advantages?  What  is  said  ol 
primary  and  of  secondary  accent  ?  What  of  two  equal  accents  ?  What  is  needed,  to  pro. 
nounce  well  ? 


PllONUKClATION. ACCENT.  6fip 

of  a  word  lias  the  chief  accent.    To  know  where  the  chief  accent  should  be  placed, 
is  sufficient ;  for  the  others  then  naturally  fall  into  their  places. 

Most  words  used  in  our  language  have  the  chief  accent  either  on 
the  penult  or  on  the  antepenult;  that  is,  on  the  second  or  the  third 
syllable  from  the  end. 

Ex.  —  Val'-ley,  con'-quest,  at-tor-'-ney,  tem'-per-ate,  mu-ta-bil'-i-ty. 

Latin,  Greek,  or  Scriptural  names,  always  have  the  chief  accent  on 
the  penult  or  on  the  antepenult. 

Ex. — Cor-i-o-la'-nus,  Ar-is-toph'-a-nes,  Jer-e-mi'-ah,  Je-ru'-sa-lem. 

Ordinary  English  words  sometimes  have  the  chief  accent  as  far  back  as 
on  the  fourth  or  even  the  fifth  syllable  from  the  end. 

Ex.— Co-tem'-po-ra-ry,  oV-li-ga-io-ry.  But  when  on  the  fifth  syllable  from 
the  end,  the  pronunciation  becomes  so  difficult  that  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to 
tiirow  the  chief  accent  on  some  syllable  nearer  the  end  ;  and  hence  we  often  bear 
oh'-li  ga-to-ry^  for  instance,  pronounced  ob-lig'-a-to-ry. 

Words  ending  in  the  sound  of  shun,  zhun,  or  chun,  or  in  any 
kindred  sound,  have  the  chief  accent  on  the  penult. 

Ex. — Conven'-tion,  popula'-tion,  posses'-sion,  combus'-tion,  complexMon,  am- 
bro'-sia,  uiusi'-cian,  poiiti'-cian,  purtina'-cious,  circumstan'-tial,*^rtin'-ciid,  coura'- 
goous,  iusuffi'-cient. 

Words  ending  in  cive,  sive,  ic,  ics,  or  tive  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
have  the  chief  accent  on  the  penult. 

Ex.— Condu'-cive,  eva'-sive,  hero'-ic,  sulphu'-ric,  cbaracterist'-ic,  philanthrop'- 
ic,  phonet'-ics,  harmon'-ics,  calistlien'-ics,  consump'-tive. 

Exceptions:  Arith'-metic,  ar'-senic  (noun),  ad'-jectivCj  bish'-opric,  catli'- 
olic,  chol'-eric,  ephem'-eric,  her'-etic,  lu'-iiatic,  polMtic,  pol'-itics,  rhet'-oric,  suV- 
stantive,  tur'-meric,  and  perhaps  pleth'-oric  and  splen'-etic. 

Words  ending  in  acal,  aq/,  athy  ;  e-al,  e-an,  e-ous  ;  efy,  ety,  erous; 
Jluous,  Jiuent ;  gonal,  graphy  ;  i-a,  i-ac,  i-al ;  i-an,  ical,  i-ous  ; 
inous,  ify,  ity ;  logy,  loquy,  lysis ;  meter,  metry ;  orous,  ulous ; 
phony,  tomy,  or  thropy, — have  the  chief  accent  on  the  antepenult. 

Ex. — Heli'-acal,  theoc'-racy,  sym'-pathy,  empyr'-eal,  or'-deal,  HercuMean, 
ceru'-lean,  sponta'-neous,  stu'-pefy,  sati'-ety>  armig'-erous,  aurif -erous,  super/- 
fluous,  circum'-fluent,  diag'-onal,  "ortho_g'-raphy,  lithog'-raphy,  rega'-lia,  ammo'- 
niac,  armo'-rial,  trage'-dian,  astronom'-ical,  coutume'-lious,  om'-inous,  volu'-min- 
ous,  person'-ify,  anal'-ogy,  col'-loquy,  paral'-ysis,  barom'-eter,  trigonom'-etry, 
o'-dorous,  carniv'-orous,  sed'-ulous,  eu'-phony,  anat'-omy,  misan'-thropy. 

JExceptions :  Adamante'-an,  antipode'-an,  colosse'-an,  cano'-rous,  empyre'- 
an,  Epicure''-an,  hymene'-al,  bymeue'-an,  pygme'-an. 

Words  of  three  or  more  syllables,  ending  in  ative,  have  the  accent 
on  the  antepenult,  or  on  the  preceding  syllable. 

Ex. — Ab'-lative,  demon'-strative,  commu'-nicative,  op'-erative,  pal'-liative, 
spec'-ulative. 

Exceptions  :  Crea'-tive,  colla'-tive,  dila'-tive. 

Some  words  may  be  .pronounced  in  different  ways,  with  good 
authority  for  each  pronunciation. 

Ex. — Adver'-tisement,  or  advertise'-ment ;    dcco'-rous,  or  dec'-orous. 

On  what  syllables  are  most  of  our  words  accented  ?  How  are  Latin,  Greek,  or  Scriptural 
names  accented  ?  What  is  said  of  words  ending  in  the  sound  of  shun,  etc.  ?  In  cive,  etc  ? 
In  acal,  etc  ?    In  ative,  etc.  ?     What  is  said  of  words  pronounced  in  different  ways  i 


W  PRONUNCIATION. EXERCISES. 

^    Exercises  in  Pronunciation. 

The  following:  exercises  may  serve  to  guard  (he  student  against  the  chief  current  faults  of  Pronnn- 
elation.   The  words  are  those  most  frequently  mispronouuced  in  the  dilfereut  parts  of  the  United  Slates. 

1.  Give  to  every  syllable  its  proper  sound. 

Pronounce  the  following  words  correctly  :  Been,  were,  ofj  for,  nor,  and,  catch, 
caught,  shut,  bloat,  such,  get,  can,  little,  end,  gather,  rather,  cart,  cow,  sky,  new, 
view,  attitude,  Tuesday,  girl,  gird,  guise,  garden,  regard,  wliere,  there,  bear, 
dau^-liter,  hearth,  again,  against,  hinder,  James,  general,  learn,  sauce,  sauc)', 
saucer,  touch,  pert,  because,  umbrella,  district  lord,  God,  dog,  scarce,  boil,  spoil, 
join,  joist,  point,  disappoint,  my,  myself,  thy,  thvself,  earth,  pretty,  brethren, 
children,  into,  covered,  roof,  hoof,  good,  to,  tassel,  nature,  future,  once,  hundred, 
image,  twice,  natural,  national,  rational,  terrors,  husband,  different,  wliole,  drove, 
Btone,  kettle,  rinse,  wince,  licorice,  enthusiast,  tune,  gratitude,  beauteous,  im- 
mediate, unctuous,  tedious,  guardian,  crystal,  distich,  pronunciation,  since,  yes, 
ear,  are,  another,  cross-wis3,  chewing-tobacco,  passage,  steady,  spectacle,  stretch, 
education,  speculation,  contributed,  diminutive,  calculate,  either,  creature,  pa- 
rent, sword,  daunt,  haunt,  hurricane,  leisure,  geography,  extraordinary,  often, 
soften,  hasten,  raspberry,  subtle,  disfranchise,  sacrifice,  auxiliary,  irradiate, 
ignoramus,  philosophy,  diploma,  divert,  divest,  dilemma,  dilapidate,  stupendous, 
tremendous,  mountainous,  proposal,  verbatim,  apparatus,  afflatus,  your,  tour, 
going,  after,  parsoift  parse,  yon,  yonder,  yours,  theirs,  his,  ours,  half,  calf,  cer- 
tainly, sudden,  suddenly,  yellow,  meadow,  widow,  window,  shallow,  hollow, 
Africa,  Asia,  America,  magnolia,  fought,  might,  Indians,  negro,  onions,  have, 
boiler,  engine,  service,  when,  what,  where,  whet,  which,  while,  sit,  set,  sat, 
liberty,  Saturday,  daguerreotype,  stereotype,  haven't,  ask,  asked,  women, 
Athens,  Themistocles,  method,  records,  attacked,  continually,  interest,  latent, 
patent,  chimney,  bayonet,  cupola,  fiend,  shook,  books,  inquiries,  search,  sorc 
of,  kind  o^  give  me,  draught,  reiterated,  isolated,  acorn,  vermin,  precede, 
prevent,  predict,  perhaps,  only,  prairie,  personage,  potatoes,  coquet,  fortune, 
massacred,  helped,  curds,  mercy,  drowned,  partaker,  iniquities,  heinous,  vio- 
lent, extremities,  recoil,  instead,  instrument,  thousands,  tremble,  sarcasm, 
chasm,  prism,  film,  elm,  audacious,  kitchen,  foreigners,  spirits,  heard,  beard, 
decisive,  drain,  figure,  preface,  designate,  Italian,  stamp,  sleek,  slake,  sieve, 
verdigris,  does,  dost,  doth,  feminine,  masculine,  clandestine,  genuine,  crystal- 
line, favorite,  respite,  hostile,  fertile,  mercantile,  profile.  Englishmen  say  hit 
for  it,  and  arse  for  horse. 

2.  Be  careful  not  to  omit  any  letter  or  letters  of  a  syllable,  nor  any 
syllable  or  syllables  of  a  vrord,  that  are  not  silent. 

Pronounce  correctly :  Kept,  slept,  nests,  lists,  costly,  conquests,  consonants, 
door,  floor,  and,  idea,  first,  worth,  months,  clothes,  sixths,  old,  must,  guests, 
texts,  adopts,  bounds,  minds,  perfectly,  shred,  shrewd,  shrub,  shriek,  shrink, 
shroud,  shrill,  strength,  length,  something,  fold,  child,  held  on,  hands,  stand, 
grinds,  oV)ject,  transcript,  tempests,  worse,  curse,  nursling,  real,  poem,  horses, 
history,  hickory,  victory,  several,  emperor,  salary,  artery,  separate,  believe, 
temporarilj^,  general,  particular,  nursery,  boundary,  flattery,  governor,  nomi- 
native, usually,  excellency,  purity,  government,  expect,  suppose,  attend, 
against,  esteem,  surface,  astonished,  waistband,  waistcoat,  according,  clothing, 
morning,  evening,  entering,  playing,  Washington. 

3.  Place  the  accent  on  the  proper  syllable. 

Difficult,  opponent,  component,  fanatic,  heretic,  towards,  into,  abstractly, 
interesting,  interested,  arable,  orchestra,  contemplative,  superfluous,  exqui- 
site, indissolubly,  deficit,    discipline,    inexorably,    mischievous,    alabaster,    im- 

What  is  the  first  direction  in  regard  to  pronunciation  ?    The  second  ?    The  third? 


PRONUNCIATION. EXERCISES.  66 

petus,  mipcellany,  sepulchre,  condolence,  mandamus,  quinine,  pantheon, 
horizon,  precedents,  precedence,  discourse,  concourse,  dessert,  inquiry,  idea, 
.•incestor,  artificer,  posthumous,  burlesque,  chagrin,  placard,  recess,  diversely, 
industry,  interference,  envious,  retributive,  hospitable,  computable,  hospital, 
theatre,  museum,  lyceum,  compromise,  commissary,  hydropathy,  hydropathic. 

4.  Bear  in  mind  that  derivatives  are  not  always  accented  or  pro- 
nounced like  their  primitives. 

Pronounce  correctly  :  Pyramid,  pyramidal ;  revoke,  revocable,  rovokable  ; 
repair,  reparable,  reparation;  converse,  conversant;  oblige,  obligatory;  com- 
pare, comparable,  incomparable ;  Europe,  European ;  Hercules,  Herculean ; 
organic,  organizable ;  depose,  deposition ;  respire,  respiratory ;  circulate,  circu- 
latory ;  transfer,  transferable,  transference ;  lament,  lamentable ;  metallic,  met- 
allurgy; preserve,  preservation  ;  depute,  deputy,  deputable ;  detest,  detestation ; 
sagacious,  sagacity;  tenacious,  tenacity;  crystal,  crystallizable,  crystalUzation, 
crystallurgy ;  present,  presentation;  perforate,  perforative;  parallelepiped,  par- 
allelopipedon ;  calculate,  calculatory ;  sacrifice,  sacriflcatory ;  conter,  confer- 
ence; iliac,  iliacal;  defalcate,  defalcation;  aspire,  aspirate,  aspirant;  cyanic, 
cyanate,  cyanean ;  colossus,  colossean ;  comment,  commentative,  commenta- 
ries; supplicate,  suppHcatory;  assign,  assigner,  assignee;  lithograph,  lithog- 
raphy ;  apostrophe,  apostrophic ;  philanthropy,  philanthropic ;  supplement, 
supplemental;  condemn,  condeinner,  condemnation;  damn,  damning;  solemn, 
solemnize ;   allopathy,  allopathic ;  homoeopathy,  homoeopathic. 

V  A  change  in  the  part  of  speech  often  requires  a  change  in  the  pro- 

''  nunciation ;  as,  To   pro-duce',   the  prod'-uce,    prod'-ucts;    to  pro-gress', 

the  prog'-ress;  to  u$e,  the  use.  Such  words,  when  used  as  nouns  or 
adjectives,  generally  have  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable;  and  when 
used  as  verbs,  on  the  second  or  last. 

Pronounce  correctly :  To  absent, — to  be  absent,  abject ;  to  abstract, — an  ab- 
stract, abstract  qualities;  to  accent,  affix,  augment, — the  accent,  affix,  aug- 
ment. To  colleague,  collect,  compact,  complot,  compound,  compress,  concert, 
concrete,  conduct,  confine,  conflict,  conserve,  consort,  contest,  contract,  con- 
trast, convert,  converse,  convict,  convoy,  countercharge,  countermarch,  counter- 
sign, etc. ;  a  colleague,  collect,  compact,  complot,  compound,  compress,  concert, 
concrete,  the  conduct,  confines,  a  conflict,  conserve,  consort,  contest,  contract,  con- 
trast, convert,  converse,  convict,  convoy,  countercharge,  countermarch,  counter- 
sign, etc.  To  desert,  descant,  digest,  discount;  a  desert,  descant,  digest, 
discount.  To  escort,  essay,  export,  extract,  exile;  an  escort,  essay,  export, 
extract,  exile.  To  fisrment,  forecast,  foretell,  foretaste,  frequent;  a  ferment, 
foretaste,  with  forecast,  frequent  notices.  To  import,  impress,  incense,  in- 
crease, inlay,  insult,  interchange,  interdict ;  an  import,  impres:!,  incense,  in- 
crease, inlay,  insult,  interchange,  interdict.  To  object,  outlaw,  overcharge, 
overfiovv,  overthrow,  ete#;  an  object,  outlaw,  overcharge,  overflow,  overthrow, 
etc.  To  perfume,  permit,  prefix,  prelude,  premise,  presage,  present,  project, 
protest ;  a  perfume,  permit,  prefix,  prelude,  premise,  presage,  present,  project, 
protest.  To  rebel,  record,  refuse,  retail,  reprimand ;  a  rebel,  record,  the  refuse, 
by  retail,  a  reprimand.  To  subject,  suffix,  survey;  a  subject,  suffix,  survey. 
To  torment,  transfer,  transport;  a  torment,  transfer,  transport.  To  undress, 
upstart;    an  undress,  upstart. 

Prec'-edents,  prece'-dent  statutes ;  with  ar'-senic,  arsen'-ic  acid ;  to  be  su 
pine',  mi-nute',  au-gusi',  corn-pact',  to  be  in-stinct'  with  life,  to  be  inval'-id, 
gal'-lant, — an  in'-valid,   a  gal-lant',  in  Au'-gust. 

What  is  the  fourth  direction?    The  fifth  ?     What  is  said  of  words  used  in  different  spn«?P8 ? 


66  PRONUNCIATION    AND    UTTERANCE. 

To  ally,  an  ally ;  to  release,  a  release ;  to  discourse,  a  discourse ;  to  design, 
a  design;  to  intrigue,  an  intrigue;  to  descend,  ascend, — the  descent,  ascent ; 
to  assent,  consent, — my  assent,  consent. 


jTJie  following  are  some  of  the  governing  principles  of  Pronunciation: — 
!•  Pronounce  words  according  to  their  spelling,  or  according  to  analogy,  unless 
custom  is  decidedly  against  such  a  pronunciation. 

2.  Indicate  difference  in  meaning  by  difference  in  pronunciation. 

3.  Use  accent  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  contribute  to  ease  of  utterance,  or 
serve  to  distiugiiish  and  enforce  the  meaning. 

English  projiundation  has  a  hasty  air,  tends  to  brevity,  and  slides  its  accents  toward  the 
left.  An  om«i7;w8  has  become  a  mere '6ms,'  a.  balco'-ny  ImshecomQ  a,  baV-cony.  WorceMer  is 
pronounced  Wiister ;  Brougham,  Brum  ;  and  Michilimacbinaa  loses  its  serpentine  length  in 
Mak'-e-nuw.  The  verbal  ending  ed  is  yet  lieard  in  the  speech  of  some  very  old  people  ;  but 
unless  the  word  is  used  adjectively,  this  ending  is  now  generally  blended  with  the  preceding 
syllable,  when  it  will  coalesce  with  it  in  sound.  Most  of  our  final  e's  are  but  the  remains  of 
syllables  that  were  once  pronounced. 


In  regard  to  Utterance^  it  may  be  well  to  nvtice  the  foUowing particulars : — 

1.  Articulation  ;  2.  Degree  of  Loudness  ;  3.  Degree  of  Eapidity  ;  4.  Inflections  ; 
5.  Tones;  6.  Emphasis;  7.  Pauses. 

1.  Good  articulation  requires  the  words  to  be  uttered  with  their  proper  sound, 
clearly,  fully  in  all  their  syllables,  and  distinctly  from  one  another.  It  is  opposed 
to  mumbling,  mouthing,  mincing,  muttering,  slurring,  drawling,  clipping,  lisping, 
hesitating,  stammering,  miscalling,  and  recalling. 

"  Words  should  drop  from  the  lips  as  beautiful  coins  newly  issued  from  the 
mint, — deeply  and  accurately  impressed,  perfectly  finished,  neatly  struck  by  the 
proper  organs,  distinct,  sharp,  in  due  succession,  and  of  due  weight." — Austin. 

That  we  have  many  words  nearly  alike  in  sound,  yet  widely  different  in  mean-- 
ing,  is  alone  a  sufficient  reason  for  exact  articulation.  Thus,  cheer  and  chair  /  pint 
midpoint^  home.,  horn  :  genus,  gndus  ',  i/mminent.  eminent  ;  satire,  satyr  ;  burst, 
bust  y  beer,  hear,  pear  •  close,  clothes  /  false,  faults  /  %dle,  idol ;  gluten,  glutton ,'  critic, 
critique  /  antic,  antique  ;  just,,  jest  /  real,  reel  ,•  rear,,  rare  •  turnip,  turn  up. 

2  and  3.  The  degree  of  loudness  or  rapidity  must  depend  on  the  speaker,  the 
hearer,  the  discourse,  the  place,  or  other  circumstances.  Scarcely  any  thing  else 
is  so  disagreeable  as  utterance  too  rapid,  low,  and  jumbled,  to  be  intelligible,  and 
rather  suggesting  that  the  speaker  is  ashamed  to  let  others  know  what  he  is  saying. 

4.  Infections  refer  to  the  passage  of  the  voice  from  one  key  or  pitch  to  an- 
other. There  are  three :  the  rising  inflection,  which  implies  elevation  of  tlie 
voice;  the/aZZi/?.^  inflection,  which  implies^  a  sinking  of  the  voice ;  and  tlm  circum- 
fex,  which  combines  the  other  two.  '■'■  Was  it  yoii,  or  JteP^  "Madam,  yoic  have 
my  father  much  offended." 

5.  The  ^o«.e.<!  are  voice  as  modulated  by  feeling.  They  fshould  be  adapted  to 
the  general  discourse,  and  also  to  its  distmct  sentiments.  Tones  aim  to  awaken, 
by  sympathy,  the  intended  emotions  in  the  hearer ;  and  they  may  also  give  a 
favorable  opinion  of  the  speaker's  heart  and  feelings. 

"  In  exordiums,  the  voice  should  be  low,  yet  clear  ;  in'  narrations,  distinct ;  in 
reasoning,  slow  ;  in  persuasions,  strong  :  it  should  thunder  in  anger ^  soften  in  sor- 
row, tremble  in  fear,  and  melt  in  love.^'' — Hiley. 

6.  Emphasi,s  is  an  elevation  of  the  voice  on  some  words,  word,  or  part  of  a 
word,  by  which  the  meaning  is  brought  out  more  precisely  or  forcibly.   Emphasis, 

Eroperly  used,  adds  greatly  to  the  vigor  of  discourse.  It  tends  to  impress  on  the 
earer  how  clearly  and  fully  the  speaker  comprehends  the  meaning  of  his  dis- 
course, or  the  importance  of  the  subject.  It  gives  a  favorable  opinion  of  the 
speaker's  understanding.  A  judicious  union  of  emphasis  and  tone  has  sometimes 
a  powerful  effect.    Emphasis :  "  We  must  fight ;  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  must  fight." 

What  are  some  of  the  governing  principles  of  Pronunciation?  "What  is  the  tendency 
ol  Englinh  pronunciation  ?  What  can  you  say  of  articulation  'i  Degree  of  loudness  or  ra- 
pidity?   Inllections y     Tones?    Emphasis?    Pauses? 


ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPIl'AL    LETTERS.  67 

7.  lUuses  are  of  three  kinds :  sentential  or  grammatical  pauses,  which,  show 
the  grammatical  sense  ;  rhetorical  pauses,  which  are  used  for  emphasis,  or  for  effect 
on  the  hearer  ;  and  Tiarmonw  or  metrical  pauses,  which  are  used  in  poetry.  The 
last  two  kinds  are  essentially  the  same.  An  emphatic  pause  is  made  before  or 
after  the  utterance  of  something  of  great  importance  ;  and  it  may  sometimes  be 
far  more  eloquent  than  the  most  expressive  words. 

3.  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

?  Tlie  letters  are  used  in  various  styles;  as, — 

Eoman,  Italic,  (Mu/a.    QDlb  QEnglisl),  "©S^ia^llEa^^Etosla 


Modem  Black. 

?  The  letters  are  printed  in  types  of  various  sizes ;  as, — 

H-rpnf  Prim  or       Small  Pica,        ^i^i^^. 
English,  B,4eois, 

Pica,  Brevier, 


Agate, 

Pearl, 

Diamond, 


?  The  letters  are  used  either  as  capital  letters  or  as  lower-case 
or  small  letters. 

CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

?*  1.  Capital  letters  should  not  be  used  without  good  reason, 
or  when  small  letters  wil?  express  the  sense  as  well  or  better. 

1  In  the  German  language,  every  noun  begins  with  a  capital  letter ;  and  in 
Old  English,  capital  letters  are  used  about  as  often,  and  less  definitely. 

Capital  letters  seem  to  have  been  at  the  highest  flood-mark  in  the  time  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth ;  at  the  lowest  ebb,  in  the  time  of  Queen  Anne  ;  and  they  rose  again  amazingly  with  the 
German  notions  of  Carlyle,  Wordsworth,  and  other  similar  writers.  I  have  seen  pages  of 
our  periodical  literature  so  full  of  these  letters,  or  so  disfigured  with  them,  as  to  have  almost 
a  hieroglyphic  appearance;  and  I  have  also  noticed  that  illiterate  people  are  apt  to  put 
a  capital  letter  wherever  they  think  it  will  look  well,  especially  when  it  is  one  that  they  can 
make  well. 

A  capital  letter  sbould  begin — 

?  2.  The  first  word  of  any  wfiting  whether  long  or  short. 
Ex. — "  Know  all  men  by  these  presents,"  &c.     "  Of  man's  first  disobedience 
and  the  fruit,"  &c. 

?  3.  The  first  word  of  every  complete  sentence ;  and  the  first 
word  after  a  .,  ?,  or  !,  denoting  a  full  pause. 

Ex. — "  It  must  be  filled  up, — this  terrible  chasm.  But  how  ?  Here  is  a  list  of 
proprietors.  Choose  from  the  wealthiest,  in  order  that  the  smallest  number  of  citi- 
zens may  be  sacrificed.  But  choose  !  Strike  !  Immolate,  without  mercy,  these 
unfortunate  victims  !" — Mirabea,u.  But  a  parenthetic  word  that  explains  an  initial 
capitalized  word,  is  not  therefore  capitalized.  "  Guerillas  ["bands  of  robbers]  in- 
fest the  mountainous  districts  of  Mexico." 

*  The  interrogation-points  on  the  left  of  the  page  are  used  In  stead  of  questions  at  the 
bottom.  The  numbers  are  designed  for  future  reference,  and  they  also  point  out  the  parts 
for  exercises  to  be  written.  Every  student  of  the  class  should  have  a  blank  copy-book,  and 
write  in  it  at  least  one  original  example  to  illustrate  each  important  principle. 

4 


68  ORTHOGRAPY. CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

?  4.  The  first  word  of  tlie  latter  part  of  a  line  broken  to  be- 
gin anew,  and  even  the  first  word  after  an  inferior  point, — to  show 
more  definitely  the  beginning  of  something  to  which  the  writer 
means  to  draw  particular  attention.      See  the  preceding  page. 

Ex. — '■'■  Eesolved^  That  we  approve,"  &e.  '■'•Beit  enacted  hy  the  Legislature  of 
New  Yorlc,  That  a  tax,"  &c.  "  One  truth  13  clear  :  Whatever  is,  is  right." — Pope. 
'^  Capital  letters  should  be  used  in  the  following  instances  :  At  the  beginning," 
&c. — Epes  Sargent. 

"  I  am,  Sir,  with  sincere  esteem, 

"Your  faithful  servant, 

"KoBERT  Peel." 

?  5.  The  first  word  of  every  separate  or  independent  phrase, 
especially  in  enumeration,  or  when  used  for  a  complete  sentence. 

Ex. — "  The  erunpowder  overboard.  Out  with  the  boat !  Here."  "The  friend- 
ship of  Holland  !  The  independence  of  Spain." — Grattan.  "  Indeed  !  What 
then?"  "  Select  Poems  of  Mrs.  Si<?oarney.  8vo.  Philadelpliia.  1842.  Price  $1.00." 
"To  Joseph  E.  Brown,  Esq."  "Very  respectfully,  yours."  "  For  Rent  or  Sale." 
"Total,  $25."  "Balance,  $9.25."  "Strata  and  laminae  may  be  distinguished  from 
joints  :  1.  By  the  alternations  of  different  material  in  the  former.  2.  By  a  differ- 
ence of  organic  remains  in  the  latter.  3.  By  ripple-marks  and  tortuosities.  4.  By 
a  difference  in  color  of  successive  portions  of  rock." — Hitclicoeld s  Oeology. 

"To  Schools, $5,785.50; 

»        To  Bridges, 2,120.25." 

A  series  of  elliptic  questions,  implying  intermediate  answers,  may  be  put  into  one  sen- 
tence with  but  one  capital;  as,  "Will  you  repeat  the  prepositions  beginning  with  at — 
with  b  f — with  c? — Goold  Brown.  But  when  the  dash  cannot  well  be  used,  as  in  mathematics, 
it  nt^iy  be  better  to  use  capitals;  though  some  writers  do  not  use  them.  "What  is  ^  of  6? 
Of  11?  Of  15?  Of  7?  Oi9r—Qreenlea/.  "  What  are  the  factors  of  20  ?  of  21  ?  of '22  ?" 
— Davies. 

?  6.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry,  written  as  such,  un- 
less the  line  is  viewed  as  being  but  a  part  of  the  preceding  line. 

Ex. —  "  Now  the  smiles  are  thicker, 

Wonder  what  they  mean  ? 
Faith,  he's  got  the  Knicker- 
Bocker  magazine  !" — J.  G.  Saxe. 
"  Go  to  the  isle  whose  green,  beautiful  border  is  girdled  by  Ocean's 
sonorous  white 


Whether  verse  written  in  the  form  of  prose  should  retain  its  capitals,  usage  has  not  pos- 
itively determined.  Mr.  Goold  Brown  sometimes  retains  them,  and  sometimes  not;  as, 
"For  whom,  alas  I  dost  thou  prepare  The  sweets  that  I  was  wont  to  share." — Cowper. 
"  To  spin  and  to  weave,  to  knit  and  to  sew,  were  once  a  girl's  employments;  but  now  to 
dress,  and  to  catch  a  beau,  are  all  she  calls  enjoyments." — Kimball.  But  most  other 
writers  do  not  retain  them.  It  is  generally  better,  unless  we  wish  to  save  space,  or  to  pre- 
sent verse  iu  the  form  of  prose,  to  avoid  such  arrangement  of  poetic  lines  altogether. 

?  7.  Every  word,  phrase,  or  sentence,  comprising  an  entire  saying 
of  some  other  person,  when  quoted  and  introduced  at  once  as  it 
was  sraid  by  him,  or  so  as  to  imply  a  change  of  speakers. 

Ex. — "Solomon  said,  'Pride  goeth  before  destruction.'"  "  Eemember  this 
ancient  maxim  :  '  Know  thyself.'  "  "  He  shouted,  '  Victory.'  "  "  They  sent  back 
the  reply,  'Independence  or  death!'"  "And,  'This  to  me,'  he  said." — Sir  W. 
Saott.  "Every  tongue  shall  exclaim  with  heart-felt  joy.  Welcome!  welcome!  La 
Fayette." — Eoerett.  "Caesar  cried,  'Help me,  Cassius,  or  I  sink.' "  *_' Jesus  an- 
swered them.  Is  it  not  written  in  your  law, — I  said.  Ye  are  Gods  ?" — Bible.  "  Tlie 
jury  brought  iu  a  verdict  of  Not  guilty." — Macaalay.  "  He  answered.  No."  "  The 
question,  then,  will  naturally  arise,  How  is  the  desired  improvement  to  be  effecteil  i 
now  are  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  art  to  be  obtained?  We  answer.  By  the 
most  simple  means  ;  by  the  very  means  which  are  so  well  adapted  to  other  sub- 


ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL    LETTERS.  09 

iects  of  learning."— TriZi(o;i's  PunctvMion.  "Thus  Cobbett  ob3erve3,  that  '  The 
French,  in  their  Bible,  say  Le  Verbe  where  we  say  The  Word.'' " — Goold  Brown. 
"  Christianity  does  not  spread  a  feast  before  us,  and  then  come  with  a  'Touch  not, 
taste  not,  handle  not.' " — Bishop  Porteus. 

?  8.  It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  add,  that  indirect  quotations  or 
questions,  resumed  quotations,  and  quoted  words  or  phrases  that  were 
not  initial,  should  not  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex. — "Solomon  says,  that  'pride  goeth  before  destruction.'"  "That  there 
must  be  some  such  relation,  is  obvious ;  but  what  is  it  ?  and  how  is  it  to  be 
known  ?"  "  With  Mr.  Headly,  an  event  always  '  transpires.'  " — E,  A.  Foe.  "  This 
indeed  is,  as  Chatham  says,  '  a  perilous  and  tremendous  moment.'  " 

As  to  words,  phrases,  or  sentences,  introduced  for  illustration,  usage  is  unsettled.  Pro- 
fessors G.  W.  Gibbs  and  Gessner  Harrison  use  small  letters.  "  To  denote  the  second  coin- 
plemont;  as,  '  the  Bible  teaches  us  that  God  is  love.'  " — Gibbs.  "  E.  g.,  nan  poterat  effuqere, 
'  he  could  not  escape.'  " — Harrison.  But  the  practice  of  most  modern  wi  iters  is  other- 
wise. Professor  Harrison  seems  to  use  capitals  wherever  he  quotes,  out  of  the  litera- 
ture, parts  from  their  beginning;  but  not  if  he  quotes  otherwise,  or  draws  from  his 
own  invention.  "  So,  Ita  est,  '  it  is  even  so.' " — Harrison.  "  Thi;se  are  called  active  or 
transitive -verhB  ;  e.  gr.,  multa  verba  dicsit,  'he  spoke  many  words.'  " — Id.  Worcester,  in  his 
Dictionary,  uses  capital  letters.  "Any  covering;  as,  '  The  coa/Is  of  an  onion;'  'A  coat 
of  paint.'" — Worcester.  "  To  carry  or  possess  as  a  mark  of  authority  or  distinction;  as, 
'To  bear  the  sword;'  '  To  bear  a  date  or  name.'" — Id.  Professor  Fowler  also  prefera 
capitals  ;  but  Mr.  Goold  Brown  sometimes  uses  them,  and  sometimes  not.  It  is  evident  that 
much  depends  on  the  unity  or  compactness  the  writer  means  to  give  to  his  sentences,  and 
also  on  what  prominence  he  means  to  give  to  his  illustrations.  Diatincl  sentences,  even 
when  not  separated  by  a  full  point,  should  generally  begin  with  capitals.  When  words  or 
phrases  are  given  as  altogether  from  the  writer  himself,  and  merely  to  complete  his  sen 
tence,  or  when  they  are  rather  suggested  incidentally  than  formally  quoted,  capitals  are  un- 
necessary, though  sometimes  used.  "  Such  are  irregular  verbs  ;  as,  see,  saw,  seen  ;  write, 
wrote,  written." 

1  9.  Every  term  or  appellation  denoting  tlie  Deity. 

Ex. — "  God  ;  the  Supreme  ;  the  Most  High ;  the  Infinite  One ;  Providence  ; 
Divine  Providence  ;  great  Parent  of  good  ;  the  Lord  of  Sabaoth  ;  the  Savior  ;  the 
Messiah ;  the  Son  of  man  ;  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  the  Holy  Spirit ;  in  Christ  our 
Lord.  Amen;  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost."  "I  turn  to  Thee." 
"Watched  by  the  Divine  eye."  "  Oh,  give  relief,  and  Heaven  will  bless  your 
store." 

An  ordinary  adjunct,  used  as  a  part  of  a  name  denoting  the  Deity,  usually  has 
no  ciipital;  as,  "the  Savior  of  sinners,"  "  the  Author  of  all  good."  When  a  word 
denotes  something  as  merely  pertaining  or  belonging  to  the  Deity,  it  does  not 
usually  need  a  capital;  as,  "  lay  wisdom  and  power  made  them  all:  they  are  the 
works  of  Thy  hand.'''' 

?  10.  When  a  pronoun,  denoting  the  Deity,  occurs  in  connection  with  its  noun, 
it  needs  no  capital,  and  seldom  has  one  in  American  books  :  as,  "  Thy  ownership 
and  workmanship  are  God's;  and  thou  art  Aw,  and  he  made  thee." — Qreenwcod. 
When  the  words  god.,  goddess,  de'ity,  divinity,  and  similar  terms,  are  applied  to  the 
heathen  deities,  they  do  not  begin  with  capitals. 

?  11.  Every  proper  name,  or  each  chief  word  of  a  proper  name; 
also  the  title,  if  any,  preceding  or  following,  especially  when  this 
stands  as  a  part  of  the  name. 

Ex. — "John  Henry  Bolton;  George  Washington ;  General  George  Washing- 
ton ;  Judge  Wells  ;  'Dr.  Juo.  B.  Joanson ;  Mrs.  Elizabeth  B.  Browning ;  tlie 
Countess  of  Blessington ;  K.  G.  Woodson,  Esq. ;  Arthur  Price,  Jun.,  Esq. ;  the 
Kev.  Mr.  Brookes;  Washington  City."  "So  Master  Dick  went  off  on  his  trav- 
els."— 0.  W.  Holmes.  "  '  You  are  old,  Father  William,'  the  young  man  replied." — 
Houthey. 

?  12.  Common  words  denoting,  in  the  same  way  as  personal 
proper  names,  personified  objects,  or  used  as  permanent  individual 


70  ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

names ;  and  phrases  so  used,  as  the  titles  of  books,  associations,  or 
other  objects, — are  proper  nouns  in  sense,  and  written  accordingly. 

Ex. — "Hail,  Liberty!"  "0  Happiness!  our  being's  end  and  aim."  "The 
entrance  into  the  garden  'of  Hope,  was  by  two  gates  ;  one  of  which  was  l^ept  by 
Reason,  and  the  other  by  Fancy."  "Thy  name  is  Hasty  Pudding? — thus  our 
sires  were  wont  to  greet  thee  fuming  from  the  lires." — Barlow.  "  There  lay  Ma- 
dam Partlet,  basking  in  the  sun,  breast-liigh  in  sand." — Dryden.  "  This  struck 
tlie  Oak  with  a  thought  of  admu'ation,  and  he  could  not  forbear  asking  tiie 
Keed,  how  became  to  be  so  secure,"  etc. — ^'iop' s  Fables :  Best  Edition.  "They  went 
to  the  Butterfly's  ball  and  the  Grasshopper's  feust."  "Tlie  Commons,  the  Central 
Park,  the  Bay  of  Biscay" — Worcester ;  "the  Pacitic  Ocean" — Everett ;  "in  West- 
minster Hall" — Macautay:  "  Baffin's  Bay,  Bristol  Bay,  the  Wliite  Sea,  the  Sea  ol 
Jamn,  the  Isle  of  Man,  Hudson's  Strait,  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  on 
LaKe  Tchad" — Oxford  Professor  ;  "  Olotfc  the  Dreamer,  Alexander  the  Great,  the 
Lake  of  Nicaragua,  to  Long  and  Staten  Islands,  in  Long  Island  Sound,  on  Bunker 
Hill,  to  Mount  Vernon,  near  the  Cupe  of  Good  Hope,  near  the  Five  Points,  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  the  East  River" — Irving;  "from  Prospect  Hill,  on  Breed's 
Hill,  at  Moultrie's  Point,  beyond  Charistovvn  Neck" — Bancroft ;  "to  Pilot's  Knob, 
to  Council  Bluffs,  Fort  Charles,  Vancouver's  Island,  near  Great  Bear  Lake,  the 
"White  Sulphur  Springs,  on  the  Fourth,  on  New  Year's  Day,  tlie  dissensions  be- 
tween the  North  and  the  South,  the  Know  Nothings,  the  Radicals,  the  Friends, 
the  Sisters  of  Charity,  the  Union  Literary  Society,  the  Milky  Way,  Scott's  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  Campbell's  Battle  of  Hohenlinden,  Mi. ton's  Paradise  Lost  and  Para- 
dise Regained,  the  first  Number  of  the  New  Monthly,  Dr.  Mitchell's  Popular  As- 
tronomy"— Sundry  Authorities.  Such  Scotch  or  Irish  names  of  mountains  or  lakes 
as  Ben  Lomond,  Loch  Gyle,  &c.,  should  always  be  written  as  two  words,  and  capi- 
talized. A  letter  or  a  word  used  as  the  name  of  itself,  is  not  usually  capitalized. 
Mr.  Goold  Brown  capitalizes  letters  so  used,  but  not  words  :  as,  "  Tee,  Tees  ;  Ess, 
Esses  ;"  "  The  pronoun  who.''''  i 

.  13.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  not  every  personified  noun  is  writ- 
ten with  a  capital,  but  only  those  which  have  the  sense  of  proper  names. 

Ex. — "Wave  your  tops^  ye  pines." — Milton.  "Ye  eagles,  playmates  of  the 
mountain  storm." — Coleridge.  (Ye  men  of  Altorf.)  "Thus  liberty,  partially,  in- 
deed, and  transiently,  revisited  Italy." — Macaulay.    (?) 

?  14.  Words  derived  from  proper  names,  should  begin  with 
capitals. 

Ex. — "  American,  Americanize,  Americanisms,  Columbian,  French,  Genoese, 
Latinize,  Grecian,  Italicize,  Italics,  (these  two  words  are  frequently  not  capitalized,) 
Christians,  Christianize,  Gallicisms,  Hebraisms,  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Jacobites,  a 
Cherokee,  Wesleyan,  Roman,  Irishman,  Weisii.  Scotchman."  "A  Southern  man 
aa  well  as  a  Northern  man." 

?  15.  But  when  such  a  word  has  lost  its  reference  to  the  proper 
name,  and  has  taken  its  place  and  a  meaning  among  the  common 
words  of  the  language,  it  is  not  written  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — "  In  academic  halls ;"  "champagne,  china-ware,  cashmere  shawls,  colos- 
sal, daguerreotype,  damask  cheeks,  godlike,  a  guinea,  sandwiches,  a  good  bilboa, 
to  galvanize,  to  hector,  hymeneal,  lalap,  laconic,  laconicism,  prussic  acid,  solar, 
lunar,  turkey  ;'■•  "most  socratically'' — Jroing.  Unchristian,  and  similar  words,  ©an 
not  receive  neatly  a  capital  within. 

?  16.  Words  of  special  emphasis  or  importance,  or  words  pecu- 
liarly or  technically  applied,  and  not  sufficiently  definite  if  writ- 
ten otherwise,  sliould  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex. — "  The  General  Assembly ;  the  excellence  of  our  Constitution  ;  our  State  ; 
the  Coal  Measures,  lying  next;  William  Penn  with  several  Friends;  the  War 
Department;  the  Auditor  of  Public  Accounts;"  "the  Reform  Bill"— Z«?»fifen 
Times  ;  "  the  Missouri  Compromise" — Congressional  Globe.      (See  also  above,  12.) 


ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL    LETTERS.  71 

"  Education  is  the  great  business  of  the  Institute." — 0.  W.  Holmes.  "  The  other 
member  of  the  Committee  was  the  Reverend  Mr.  Butters,  who  was  to  make  the 
prayers  before  the  Exercises  of  the  Exhibition."— /<i.  "Every  American-bora 
husband  is  a  possible  President  of  the  United  States." — Id.  "The  Medical  Col- 
lege in  Mason  Street." — Everett.  "  The  disasters  which  this  little  band  of  Pilgrims 
encountered." — Id.  "The  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts." — Id.  "The 
Governor  of  the  Cape." — British  Quarterly.  "  The  guests  were  entertained  by 
Mayor  Eice,  at  his  residence,  No.  34,  Union  Place." — A  Boston  Journal.  In  a 
drafc  written  by  an  intelli<^ent  gentleman,  I  see  that  the  sum  of  money  is  capital- 
ized— "  Five  Hundred  and  Fifty-five  Dollars."  A  large  banner  floats  over  Broad- 
way, with  this  motto  :  "  The  llnion,  the  Constitution,  and  the  enforcement  of  the 
Laws. — H.  Clay." 

?  17.  Writers  often  take  greater  liberty  in  designating  by  capitals 
the  chief  objects  of  their  own  science,  art,  or  profession,  than  is 
allowed  to  other  persons  treating  of  such  things  only  incidentally. 

Ex. — "  The  Blue  Bird  [letter — Blue-bird]  of  America,"  etc.,  says  Audubon  ;  be- 
cause birds  made  his  business  of  life,  and  so  in  treating  of  each  he  capitalizes  the 
name.  An  astronomer,  in  treating  of  the  solar  system,  says,  "  The  Sun  is  the  centre 
of  the  System."  Fowler  records  his  phrenological  speculations  thus  :  "  His  mu- 
sical talent  is  great ;  for  Time,  Order,  Calculation,  and  Tune,  are  largely  developed." 
And  merchants  over  all  parts  of  our  country  do  and  may  capitalize,  in  their  ac- 
counts, the  names  of  those  things  which  constitute  their  business.  It  seems  to  be 
also  becoming  rather  fashionable,  to  capitalize  words  in  stead  of  Italicizing  them  ; 
and  in  school-books  and  scientific  treatises,  we  often  see  their  peculiar  vocabulaiy 
made  particularlv  prominent  in  this  way.  Perhaps  the  printers,  to  whom  this 
mode  of  distinction  gives  less  trouble  than  any  other,  are  those  who  have  chiefly 
introduced  it.  The  practice  is  apt  to  run  to  excess,  and  is  then  akin  to  that  of 
using  the  dash  excessively. 

?  18.  Names,  titles,  mottoes,  or  other  expressions,  when  very 
emphatic,  or  when  designed  to  catch  the  eye  from  a  distance,  are 
frequently  printed  or  painted  wholly  in  capitals.  And  in  Advertise- 
ments and  Notices,  the  liberty  of  capitalizing  is  carried  to  a  great 
and  almost  indefinite  extent. 

Ex. — Advertisement:  "Just  published.  A  Collection  of  Songs,  Duets,  Trios, 
and  Choruses.  Together  with  a  New  and  Complete  Course  of  Elementary  Instruc- 
tion, and  Lessons  in  Singing,  for  the  School-room  and  the  Social  Circle.  Price 
62i  cents." 

?  19.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  0  should  always  be 
capitals. 

Finally,  the  following  rule  may  aid  in  deciding  doubtful  cases  generally. 

?  20.  Whenever  any  term  or  terms  of  a  certain  import  in  the 
language,  are  employed  as  a  title,  or  merely  to  designate  a  particular 
person  or  thing  rather  than  to  characterize  the  same  by  their  mean- 
ing, capitals  are  used  ;  otherwise  not. 

Ex. — "  The  Infinite  One ;"  "  the  design  of  an  infinite  Creator,  the  law  of  the 
Almighty  God." — John  Wilson.  "  Either  the  world  had  a  creator,  or  it  existed  by 
chance." — Prof.  Gibhs.  "  The  Green-Mountain  Boys  were  allowed  to  choose  their 
own  officers." — Bancroft.  "  To  Professor  Longfellow,  that  is,  to  the  poet  Long- 
fellow." "  In  his  Public  Despatches." — Macaulay.  Whether  I  should  write, 
"  Webster's  Speeches"  or  "  Webster's  speeches,'.'  "  Burus's  Poems"  or  "  Burns'a 
poems,"  depends  altogether  on  whether  I  am  thinking  of  the  title  or  simply  of  the 
speeches  or  poems.  "  Gray  hardly  tools  more  pains  with  his  Elegy,"  not  elegy. 
"I  do  not  know,  sir."  "  I  am.  Sir,  very  sincerely,  your  friend."  "  The  Doctor 
now  heard  the  approach  of  clattering  hoofs." — 0.  W.  Holmes.  "  In  the  preface  of 
his  work,  he  says,"  <fec. — O  Brown.    "  In  his  Preface,  he  says,"  &c. — Id. 


)/r) 


ORTHOefRAPny. CAPITAL    LETTERS. 


voast  Survey  Gewftpskay  of  the  U/ilted  States  ;  the  Hadson  Bay  Company; 

Iry  of  the  Interior ;  NewEndand;  Mount  Vernon;  Fort  Riley;  Capa  May; 
^:«nvij  xiuuk;  Long  Island  Sound ;  Little  Egg  Harbor;  Lake  Erie,  Lake  Ontario; 
along  lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Superior ;  a  house  in  Laurel  Grove — at  Harper's 
Ferry  (toivns) ;  the  Senate,  and  the  House  of  Representatives  ;  earth  to  earth  ;  the 
productions  of  the  earth;  the  planets,  Mercury,  Venus,  Earth,  Mars,  etc. ;  the  sun 
and  the  moon  ;  robed  in  Luna's  silver  mantle ;  the  vault  of  heaven ;  a  heaven  of 
bliss* ;  protected  by  Heaven ;  my  brother  John ;  John  Bull  to  Brother  Jonathan  • 

scenes  of  nature ;  according  to  nature ; and  Nature  sighed  that  all  was  lost.'' 

"I  have  hope;"  "Eternal  Hope!  thy  joyous  youth  began."  "We  had  much 
pleasure  ;"  "  My  name  is  Pleasure."  "  I  reside  at  a  French  village — at  a  place 
called  French  Village."     "  See  Rale  8th, and  the  Notes  under  it." 

Familiar  Illustrations  and  Critical  Remarks.  —  A  chapter  in  your 
history  refers  to  your  life ;  but  a  chapter  in  your  History  refers  rather  to  a  book 
written  and  so  named  by  you.  The  new  Lucy  is  not  so  old  a  boat  as  the  old 
L?M:y.  but  the  New  Lucy  may  be  an  old  boat.  When  I  speak  of  the  principal  of 
a  school,  I  refer  to  his  duties;  but  when  I  speak  of  the  Principal  of  a  school,  1 
refer  to  liis  title.  The  Monticello  academy  is  an  academy,  in  Monticello,  that 
bears  the  name  of  Montrose  Academy.  A  person  may  be  educated  at  a  university, 
and,  while  in  Virginia,  may  visit  the  University.  The  punctuation  of  a  book 
refers  to  its  sentential  points,  but  its  Paactuation  is  one  of  the  subjects  of  which 
it  treats.  Callaway  county  is  usually  called  Callaway,  but  Kansas  City  is  not 
usually  called  Kansas.  The  Ohio  river  is  as  well  denoted  by  the  Ohio,  which  is 
a  sufficient  name  to  call  it  by :  but  the  Bed  Rivev  is  not  usually  called  the  Red, 
nor  is  the  Blue  Ridge  ever  called  the  Blue  ;  for  it  takes  the  two  words  to  make 
the  name.  (This,  I  was  told  in  the  Globe  Office  at  Washington  City,  is  the  dis- 
tinction observed  there ;  and  I  see  but  this  objection  to  it,  namely,  that  the 
phrases  "the  Ohio  river,"  "the  Mississippi  river,"  for  instance,  might  be  under- 
stood as  meaning,  like  the  phrase  "  tho  Virginia  militia,"  simply  the  river  be- 
longing to  Ohio  or  Mississippi.  "  And  it  contiuues  to  be  called  Hudson  river 
unto  this  day." — Irving.  Mr.  Geo.  Bancroft  writes,  inconsistently,  "  in  Mystic 
river,  on  the  Neuse  River,  the  Savannah  River,  within  the  limits  of  the  present 
Greene  county."  The  city  of  New  York  or  New  York  city  is  generally  called 
New  York ;  but  Jersey  City  or  Jefferson  City  needs  both  words  to  make  tlio 
name.  The  Indian  always  says,  "  Groat  Spirit,"  or  uses  both  words  to  denote 
God;  but  when  Pope  wrote,  "Thou  great  First  Cause,"  he  used  great  in  its  or- 
dinary descriptive  sense.  The  Ki7ig  of  kings  shows  preeminently  God's  relation 
to  worldly  kings ;  but  the  Angel  of  Death  does  not  show  the  relation  of  any 
angel  to  death.  The  Devil  denotes  Satan ;  but  a  devil  may  be  simply  a  bad  per- 
son or  spirit.  Macaulay  writes,  "They  have  coined  out  of  Machiavelli's  Christ- 
ian name  a  nickname  [tTickl  for  the  Devil;"  also,  "The  Tempter,  or  the  Evil 
Principle."  "  'Will  yon  walk  into  my  parlor?'  said  the  Spider  to  the  Fly,"  de- 
notes tho  two  as  if  they  were  Mr.  A  and  Mr.  B,  or  as  the  chief  subject  oi"  the 
composition.  But  JE^op^s foxes,  lions,  mice,  crows,  etc.,  are  not,  in  all  books,  hon- 
ored with  capitals.  A  Methodist,  a  Republican,  a  Mussulman,  or  a  Roarer,  be- 
longs to  some  religious,  political,  or  social  sect  or  party.  "  William  Penn  with  a 
few  Friends,"  is  very  different  from  "WilUam  Penn  v/ith  a  few  friends."  "The 
First  and  the  Second  Sandstone,"  implies  scientific  distinction.  Prof.  Lyell,  of 
England,  writes,  "the  Old  Red  sandstone,"  "the  Secondary  series;"  because, 
I  suppose,  in  these  capitalized  words  lies  the  technical  distinction,  and  no  other 
capitals  are  needed.  The  gospel  deaotei^the  Christian  doctrines;  bat  the  Gos- 
pels and  the  Revelation  denote  parts  of  the  New  Testament.  Tiie  phrase  "Di- 
vine assistance"  refers  directly  to  God,  but  tho  phrase  "divine  beauty"  does  not. 
Missouri  is  a  part  of  the  South,  thougli  it  Is  west.  Such  is  the  union  of  the 
States,  that  they  are  often  called  the  Union  or  the  United  States.  Van  Diem  en's 
Land  is  not  the  land  belonging  to  Van  Diemen.  Grabhe's  Prairie  once  waa 
Crabbe's  prairie.     Suiter's  Mill  is  now  a  little  town,  and  tlio  mill  is  washed 


^   ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL    LETTERS.  Y8 

away.  BoUori's  F^rry  is  a  place  on  the  Osage  at  ■which  there  is  now  no  ferry 
The  London  Times  is  a  newspaper ;  London  times  are  something  else.  The 
Planter'' s  House  is  a  hotel ;  the  planter's  hoicse  is  noted  for  hospitality.  "  Monthly 
Meetings"  are  sometimes  held  by  large  and  important  religious  societies ;  and 
are  considered,  I  suppose,  more  definite,  formal,  and  important  than  "  monthly 
meetings."  When  I  speak  of  the  Company  or  the  Convention,  I  mean  to  guard 
you  against  thinking  of  the  wrong  one,  or  to  make  you  think  of  a  particular  one. 
The  Battle  of  the  Books  refers  to  a  celebrated  literary  controversy.  The  Insur- 
rection was  printed  with  a  capital  letter,  only  while  the  excitement  lasted;  but 
the  Revoludon  and  the  Reformation  are  still  matters  of  interest,  and  retain  their 
capitals. 

So,  as  the  world  advances,  and  new  and  stirring  events  are  continually 
thrown  up  to  the  surface,  any  common  word  or  phrase  may  yield  itself  up  aa  a 
sort  of  temporary  proper  name ;  and,  when  no  longer  needed  as  such,  be  deprived 
of  its  capital,  and  returned  to  the  common  arsenal  of  speech. 

Philadelphia  has  a  mint  and  several  colleges.  I  visited  the  Mint  this  morning, 
and  also  the  College  [G-irard's].  "  Tlie  city  contains  an  Asylum  for  the  Deafj 
Dumb,  and  Blind,  a  Mint,  and  a  City  Hall,"  was  written  as  if  the  names  had 
been  transcribed  from  the  buildings  tliemselves.  The  Lunatic  Asylum  is  a  partic- 
ular and  distinguished  institution  in  our  State,  but  there  are  lunatic  asylums  in 
most  parts  of  the  world.  "  The  expulsion  of  our  first  parents  from  the  Garden ;" 
I.  e.,  from  Eden.  I  went  with  him  to  visit  the  Lakes ;  i.  e.,  a  celebrated  group 
of  kikes.  The  "lake  of  the  Woods"  is  a  lake  in  some  famous  woods,  the  "  Lake 
of  the  woods"  is  a  famous  lake  in  woods,  but  the  "  Lake  of  the  Woods"  is  sim- 
ply a  lake  so  called.  "The  Erie  Canal"  is  wholly  a  name  ;  but  the  "  Erie  and 
Ohio  canal"  is  understood  as  being  the  canal  between  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio 
river.  The  Missouri  railroad  is  a  railroad  in  Missouri ;  but  the  Missouri  Bail- 
road  could  be  located  anywhere.  We  can  see  white  mountains  in  almost  any 
mountainous  country ;  but  the  White  Mountains  are  in  New  Hampshire.  The 
South  Pass  denotes  not  only  a  pass,  but  is  extended  in  application  to  the  sur- 
rounding country,  so  as  to  denote  a  locality  besides.  Niagara  Falls  means  not 
merely  a  fall  of  water.  Lord  Jotfrey,  in  stead  of  saying,  "  Sliakespeare,"  says, 
"  the  Poet."  The  phrase  Old  Dominion  is  put  for  the  proper  name  Virginia. 
Macaulay  writes,  "  The  mercenary  warriors  of  the  Peninsula,''  applying  the  word 
in  a  specific  sense,  or  to  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  phrase  "  Elegy  in  a  Country 
Church  Yard"  is  as  much  the  proper  name  of  a  poem  as  John  may  be  the  proper 
name  of  a  boy.  "  I  saw  his  Excellency  the  Governor  at  the  party ;"  i.  e.,  I  saw 
Mr.  A.  there.  Were  I,  however,  to  call  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village  Gold- 
smith's great  poem,  I  would  not  capitalize  the  latter  phrase.  (See  20.)  "  To  the 
honorable  legislature"  is  a  less  definite  and  complimentary  phrase  than  "  To 
the  Honorable  Legislature."  The  London  Times  says,  "  Her  Majesty,  the  Prince 
Consort,  the  Bride,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  the  other  members  of  the  Royal 
Family  were  there."  Common  folks  would  not  have  boon  thus  honored  with 
capitals.  I  should  rather  speak  of  myself  as  the  author  than  as  the  Author,  for 
fear  people  should  think  I  set  too  high  a  value  on  my  production,  or  on  the  class 
of  persons  to  which  I  belong.  But,  if  I  were  president  of  the  United  States,  I 
should,  considering  the  great  and  admitted  dignity  of  the  office,  speak  of  myself 
{IS  the  President.  I  should  begin  my  letter  with  this  address, — "  My  dear 
Friend,"  "  My  dear  Sir,"  "  Dear  Sir,"  "  Dear  Uncle,"  or  '•  My  dear  Aunt  Mary,'' 
&c.  Judge  Story  writes,  "  My  dear  Sir :",  '*  My  Dear  Sir :",  "  My  dear  Wile  :"; 
Dr.  Holmes,  "My  dear  Professor, — ";  Sydney  Smith,  "Dear  Jefirey,",  "  My 
dear  Mr.  Jeffrey,";  the  Quarterly  Review  has,  "  My  Dear  Friend,". 

A  Cambridge  Professor  speaks  of  his  Essay  in  referring  to  a  book  called 
Cambridge  Essays ;  and,  having  introduced  Captain  Marryatt,  he  afterwards 
speaks  of  him  as  the  Captain,  and  not  as  the  captain.  Our  Club,  President, 
Secretary,  and  Treasurer,  are  such   in  title  as  well  as  in  fact.     "  Book  T,  Part 


74  ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

Second,  Etymology,  Remark,  Observation,  Names  of  Deity,  Rules  concerning 
Examples  and  Quotations,"  refer  to  particular  parts  or  headings  of  the  book. 
An  accurate  grammarian  writes,  "  Murray,  in  his  G-rammar,  says,  &e. — The 
Critic,  a  Newspaper."  An  Act  of  Congress  is  not  like  an  act  of  a  rope-dancer, 
and  of  greater  importance.  A  governor  is  not  necessarily  a  Governor ;  nor  a 
supreme  court,  a  Supremo  Court;  nor  the  fifth  street,  Fifth  Street.  "  Our  Con- 
stitution" does  not  refer  to  our  health,  nor  does  "  our  State"  refer  to  our  condi- 
tion. We  may  speak,  however,  in  general  terms,  of  the  states,  empires,  and 
kingdoms  of  the  earth ;  and  dukes,  kings,  emperors,  queens,  consuls,  presidents, 
judges,  mayors,  directors,  commissioners,  councilmen,  etc.,  are  all  subject  to  tho 
same  rules  in  respect  to  capital  letters.  I  am  aware  that  it  is  rather  dangerous 
to  admit  the  principle  of  capitalizing  words  merely  because  they  are  deflected  in 
sense;  but,  to  some  extent,  the  principle  must  be  admitted,  or,  I  should  rather 
say,  is  already  established.  I  find,  in  my  reading,  "  the  cane-brakes  of  the  state 
of  Louisiana" — Bancroft;  "  the  union  of  the  States" — Everett;  "used  in  Louisi- 
ana and  some  neighboring  states"—  Worcester  ;  "  the  people  in  his  own  state" — 
Bryant;  "the  States  of  Italy" — Macaulay  ;"  "in  the  service  of  a  single  state" — 
Id. :  but,  if  the  North,  South.  East,  and  West,  make  the  United  States,  I  think 
one  of  tlaese  is  a  State,  especially  as  "  the  state  of  Virginia,"  for  instance,  ma^ 
mean  how  Virginia  is.  I  find  also, — when  the  idea  is  universally  considerecl, 
or  "unified," — "  He  is  a  member  of  the  bar" — Worcester;  "  For  the  Bar  or  the 
Pulpit" — Mandeville ;  "  Who  kills  by  the  sword,  shall  die  by  the  sword" — Bible  ; 
"  The  Song  is  in  poetry,  what  tho  Essay  is  In  prose" — Atlantic  Monthly ;  "  In 
ancient  times,  the  State  supported  the  Oracle" — Oxford  Professor;  "These  con- 
templative views  of  Nature  and  Man" — Id. :  but  such  capitalizing  should  be  in- 
dulged in  very  sparingly.  "  Have  we  lilted  up  our  eyes  to  Him  who  is  Love, 
Light,  and  Truth,  and  Bliss" — Prof.  Wilson.  (See  also  9.)  Mr.  Hawthorne  says 
of  an  ItaUan  statue,  "  Here,  likewise,  is  seen  a  symbol  (as  apt  at  this  moment  as 
it  was  two  thousand  years  ago)  of  the  Human  Soul,  with  its  choice  of  Innocence 
or  Evil  close  at  hand,  in  the  pretty  figure  of  a  child  clasping  a  dove  to  her  bo- 
som, but  assaulted  by  a  snake."  (See  also  12.)  Prof.  Silliman  writes,  "  The 
Flora  of  Australia  has  justly  been  regarded  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world ;" 
"  The  European  and  Australian  floras  seem  to  me  to  be  essentially  distinct."  I 
find,  furthermore,  "from  Catharine-street" — London  Times;  "near  William 
street,  in  Mulberry-street" — Irving ;  "in  Chatham-street" — Greeley ;  "hi  Grand 
street" — Bryant ;  "  at  the  corner  of  Union  street  and  Hanover  street" — Everett ; 
"No.  22,  School  Street" — John  Wilson,  of  Boston;  "at  a  lawyer's  office,  in 
Nassau  Street,  New  York" — Atlantic  Monthly.  The  compounding  of  the  two 
words  makes  the  most  exact  term ;  tho  use  of  two  capitals  is  more  in  accord- 
ance with  analogy;  (see  12  ;)  but  the  last  mode  of  expression  is  becoming  per- 
haps most  common.  What  I  have  shown  and  said  in  reference  to  streets,  may 
also  be  noticed  in  reference  to  several  other  kinds  of  not  very  important  objects, 
especially  when  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  word  is  still  prominent.  "We 
passed  the  Antelope  hills,  G-ray  creek,  and  Rocky  Dell  creek." — U.  S.  Survey  of 
E.  R.  Route  to  the  Pacific.  (?)  In  English  newspapers  I  generally  find  such 
words  compounded  ;  as,  Spring-gardens,  Leicester -place,  Hampden-street,  Fourth- 
street ;  ^^Arklow-house,  Gomiaughi-place,  June  18th."  There  seems  to  be  a  tend- 
ency to  consider  what  figure  the  object  makes  in  the  writer's  composition,  or  in 
the  great  affairs  of  the  world ;  and,  it  it  is  not  a  matter  of  much  interest  or  im- 
portance, to  use  small  letters,  or  not  more  capitals  than  are  absolutely  necessary 
to  distinguish  the  object  from  others  of  the  same  kind. 

When  earth,  heaven,  and  hell,  are  spoken  of  as  habitations,  small  letters  gen- 
erally begin  the  words ;  though  some  writers  urge  that  when  tho  latter  two 
places  denote  the  abodes  of  the  blessed  and  of  the  miserable,  they  are  always 
proper  names,  and  should  begin  with  capitals;  and  I  find,  in  my  reading, 
"  Sleep  on,  and  dream  of  Heaven  a  while  ;"  "  Frail  child  of  earth  1  high  heir  of 


ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL    LETTERS.  75 

heaven  1"  Heaven  and  Eell,  and  some  other  such  terms,  as  used  by  Milton,  iii 
Paradise  Lost,  should  doubtless  begin  with  capitals,  being  used  in  a  somewhat 
unusually  apecihc  sense:  they  form  a  part  of  his  "machinery."  When  Muses, 
Graces,  Naiads,  etc.,  are  conceived  in  the  splendor  of  ancient  imagination,  they 
are  generally  favored  with  capitals ;  but  our  own  fairies,  fays,  gnomes,  sylphs, 
hobgoblins,  etc.,  are  rather  too  puny  in  idea  to  be  thus  distinguished.  The 
words  spring,  summer,  fall,  autmnn,  winter,  time,  eternity,  seasons,  morning, 
eveiiing,  noon,  day,  night,  and  many  other  individual  terms, — such  as  earth, 
heaven,  hell,  sun,  moon,  stars,  wo^ld,  uriiverse,  nature,  space,  equator,  zodiac, 
ecliptic,  north,  south,  east,  west,  etc., — when  used  in  their  most  ordinary  sense,  or 
wlien  their  meaning  predominates,  are  not  usually  capitalized;  but  when  they 
^ve  used  in  a  somewhat  technical  or  peculiar  sense,  when  they  are  personified, 
or  when  the  objects  are  to  be  honorably  distinguished,  the  words  are  capitalized. 
The  terms  Pandemonium,  Tartarus,  Elysium,,  Gardens  of  the  Hesperides,  Ely- 
sian  Fields,  are  of  course  proper  names.  Lord^s  Bay  is  equivalent  to  Sunday. 
New  Yearns  Day,  the  Fourth,  Good  Friday,  or  any  other  holiday,  is  as  much  a 
particular  day  as  Sunday,  Monday,  or  any  other  day  of  the  week. 

After  all,  something  must  be  left  to  taste,  or  to  the  nice  intuitive  perceptions 
of  the  writer ;  and  the  two  extremes  of  custom  in  regard  to  capital  letters,  may 
be  briefly  summed  up  thus : — 

a.  Any  particular  place,  time,  object,  office,  officer  or  functionary,  asso- 
ciation, writing,  building,  science,  art,  or  great  event,  should  be  distinguisiied 
by  capital  letters. 

h.  Only  initial  words,  /and  0,  titles  and  proper  names,  or  what  is  used 
in  the  same  way,  should  be  thus  distinguished. 

The  following  principles  may  he  added  in  regard  to  phrases  and  sentences  : — 

1  21.  A  new  proper  name  made  from  an  old  one,  by  the  addition  of 
some  common  word.     Capitals. 

Ex. — "  Orleans,  New  Orleans;  Cambridge,  East  Cambridge  ;  New  Hampshire  ; 
Governor  Clinton ;  Jetferson  City;  Eiiode  IsLind  ;  Miller's  Landing ;  Upper  Can- 
ada ;  Astor  House;  Mount  Mitchell;  Kansas  Territory;  Japan  Sea;  Lisle 
Town ;  the  Gulf  of  Mexico."  This  and  the  following  are  ruling  principles,  and 
fail  to  hold  good  only  when  the  objects  are  rather  insignificant. 

?  22.  One  or  more  common  words, — usually,  a  noun  and  an  adjective, 
a  noun  and  an  adjunct,  a  noun  and  a  possessive,  a  noun  and  its  appositive, 
a  phrase  or  a  sentence, — raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  proper  name  for  a  par- 
ticular object.     Capitals. 

Ex.— "The  Park;  Salt  River;  Salt  Lake;  Big  Sandy;  Sandy  Hook;  Land' a 
End ;  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  ;  the  Laurel  Hills  ;  i\ 
hill  called  Cedar  Crest ;  the  United  States;  the  Western  States;  the  Little  Bait; 
the  Old  Sonth  Church;  City  Police;  Post  Office;  the  Know  Nothings;  a  hool^ 
called— The  Temple  of  Truth." 

?  23.  In  capitalizing  entire  sentences  or  Italic  head -lines,  distin-. 
giiish,  by  capitals,  the  nouns  ;  for  the  sake  of  greater  distinction,  the 
nouns,  the  qualifying  adjectives,  the  participles,  and  other  prominent 
words,  and  always  write  the  mere  particles  small. 

Ex. — "  Our  observations  may  be  comprised  under  the  following  heads  :  Proper 
Loudness  of  Voice ;  Distinctness  ;  Slowness  ;  Propriety  of  Pronunciation  ;  Emphasis  ; 
Tones  l  and  Mode  of  Reading  Versed — K.  G.  Paiiker.  "  Episcopal  Innovation  ;  or^ 
the  Test  of  Modern  Orthodoxy  in  Eighth-seven  Questions,  im,posed  as  Articles  of 
Faith,  upon  Ou?ididates  for  Licenses  and  Bolv  Orders,  ir^  the  Diocese  of  Petersl>oro ugh  ; 
with  a  distinct  Answer  to  each  Question,  ana  General  Reflections  rdative  t.-'  their  Il- 
legal Structure  and  Pernicious  Tendency^ — SvuifEy  Sittrrn. 

4* 


76  ORTIIOGIIAPJIY. CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

General  Direction  for  CoRRECTiNa. — First,  read  distinctly,  as  it  is,  what 
is  to  be  corrected:  condemn  it-;  take  a  convenient  erroneous  portion,  say  what  it 
should  be,  and  give  the  reason  by  stating  the  principle  violated ;  and,  finally,  read 
the  corrected  example.  For  greater  fullness,  say,  wlien  convenient,  that  the  er- 
roneous part  with  such  properties  or  sucii  a  meaning,  should  be  so  with  such 
properties,  such  a  meaning,  or  for  such  a  purpose ;   because,  etc. 


Examples  to  be  Corrected. 

Formula. — Incorrect :  the  word ,  beginning  with  a  small ,  should 

begin  with  a  capital ;  because .  (Give  the  precept  violated,  as  pre- 
sented on  some  preceding  page;  and  vary  the  Formula  wnen  a  variation  is 
needed.) 

Congress  authorized  gen.  "Washington  to  appoint  an  officer  to  take  charge  of 
the  southern  district.  When  Laud  was  arraigned,  "can  any  one  believe  me  a 
traitor,"  exclaimed  the  astonished  prelate. — Bancroft.  The  blood  of  those  who 
have  Fallen  at  concord,  lexington,  and  bunker's  hill,  cries  aloud,  "  it  is  time  to 
part."  Three  cheers  were  given  for  the  "  champion  of  the  south."  The  bible 
says,  children,  obey  your  parents.  A  hundred  presbytorian  ministers  preached 
every  sunday  in  Middlesex.  There  was  no  Church  to-day  at  middle  grove.  In 
Benton's  thirty  years  you  can  And  this  Statement.  All  these  pleas  are  overruled 
the  moment  a  lady  adduces  her  irrefragable  argument,  you  must.  Daniel  Web- 
ster, secretary  of  state.  At  fort  black  Hawk.  He  Knew  general  la  Fayette 
and  captain  Phipps.  He  was  first  a  Captain  and  tlien  a  General.  This  Cliief 
had  the  sounding  appellation  of  white  thunder.  Washington  city,  the  Capital 
of  the  United  states,  is  in  the  district  of  Columbia.  He  is  now  president  of 
Westminster  college,  and  was  formerly  principal  of  Montrose  academy.  While 
every  honest  tongue  "stop  thief!"  resounds.  To  this  I  answer,  no.  The  answer 
may  be,  yes  or  no.  The  president  lives  in  the  white  housi.  These  Birds  go 
South  in  Winter,  but  return  in  i:rpring  or  Summer.  I  saw,  at  the  same  time, 
a  person  called  fraud,  behind  the  count  t,  with  false  scales,  light  weights,  and 
scanty  measures.  Falsehood  let  the  arms  of  .sophistry  fall  from  her  grasp,  and, 
holding  up  the  shield  of  impudence  with  both  hjr  hands,  sheltered  herself  among 
the  passions. — id.  The  first  melting  of  Lead  Ore  in  this  county  was  in  a  rude 
log  furnace.  This  is  especially  true  of  Elm  and  Hickory  land.  Dam  spiro, 
spero  ;  while  I  breathe,  I  hope.  The  question  is.  which  of  them  can  best  pay 
the  penalty  ?  Be  it  enacted  by  the  legislature  of  Ohio,  that  the  taxes,  etc.  Lind- 
ley  murray  says,  "when  a  quotation  is  brought  in  obliquely  after  a  comma,  a 
Capital  is  unnecessary ;  as,  solomon  observes,  '  That  Priae  goeth  before  destruc- 
tion.'"— octavo  grammar,  P.  28-1.  At  length,  the  comprehension  bill  was  sent 
down  to  the  commons.  To  the  honorable  the  presi  Jent  and  the  house  of  convetj- 
tion.  He  was  President  of  the  massachusetts  historical  society,  the  Editor  of 
a  few  volumes  of  its  historical  colleccion.s,  and  a  Contributor  to  the  Boston  daily 
advertiser.  The  author  of  the  Task  was  a  good  Poet.  Some  welsh  emigrauis 
who  were  zealous  christians.  Put  the  first  hue  in  roman  letters,  and  italicize 
the  other.  Tiie  mexican  leader  was  don  autonio  de  lo|iez  de  santa  anna.  She 
is  gone  to  him  that  comforteth  as  a  mother  comforteth.  The  hand  that  made  us, 
id  divine.  Here  is  the  village  of  beaver  meadow ;  also  mauch  chunk,  or  bear 
mountain,  broad  and  spring  mountains,  bald  ridge,  and  pine  hills,  are  here. 
This  swamp  was  called  the  shades  of  death,  by  the  sufferers  fiom  Wyoming. 
There  dwelt  a  sage  called  discipline.  He  flattered  himself  that  the  tories  might 
bo  induced  to  make  some  concessions  to  the  dissenters,  on  conuition  tliat  the 
whigs  would  be  lenient  to  the  Jacobites.  Men  may  be  divided,  intellectually, 
into  the  following  classes :  the  great,  the  extraordinary,  the  ordinary,  t!ie  imita- 
tive, the  energetic,  the  mediocre,  the  feeble,  the  small,  and  tlw  dull.     Monroo 


ORTHOGRAPHY. SYLLABLES.  77 

house ;  Martha's  vineyard ;  lake  Champlain  ;  little  Peedee ;  Cook's    inlet ;   Pe- 
nobscot bay;  mourxt  Zion;  mount  Vernon;  east   indies;  the  white  sea;   the 
Indian  ocean;  Bunker  hill:   Harper's  ferry;  Jersey  city;   Oharleston  City ;  the 
City  of  Cincinnati ;  in  the  County  of  Cole ;  Appollo  garden ;  Lafayette  place ; 
Boone  County ;  the  Propliet  Isaiah ;  King  Solomon ;  the  Evangehst  Matthew. 
The  Gulf  stream ;  the  G-ulf-Stream  waters ;  the  New-york  Fire  insurance  Com- 
pany.    Some  of  the  Bottom  Prairies  of  the  Missouri  are  thirty  miles  long. 
The  work  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  use  of  common  schools, — 
by  thorough  and  varied  exercises ; 
by  frequent  and  complete  reviews  ; 
by  simplicity  of  terms  and  arrangement. 
See  art's  fair  Empire  o'er  our  shores  advance. 
I  hate  when  vice  can  bolt  her  arguments, 
and  virtue  has  no  tongue  to  check  her  pride. — Milton. 
Fair  science  frowned  not  on  his  bumble  birth, 
And  melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own. — Gray. 
Our  Clifford  was  a  noble  Youth. —  Wordsworth. 

SYLLABLES. 

Wlmt  is  a  syllable?  A  word?  A  monosyllable ?  A  dissyllable?  A  trisyllable ?  A  poly- 
syllable ?    See  p.  1. 

?  24.  Every  syllable  must  consist  of  one  or  more  vowels,  or  of 
one  or  more  vowels  enclosed  on  one  or  both  sides  by  one  or  more 
consonants. 

Ex. — 0,  i-dle,  au-ger,  ba-ker,  broil;  an,  ants;  dot,  shrill,  breasts,  shat-tered. 

?  25.  What  is  put  to  the  beginning  of  a   word  to  modify   its 

meaning,  is  termed  a  prefix ;  to  the  end,  a  suffix  ;  and  the  part 

which  receives  the  prefix  or  the  suffix,  is  called  the  root^  or  radical. 

Ex. — ^Plant,  re-plant,  ^m«.*-plant,  *m-plant;  act,  act-or,  act-iwe,  &GtrivU^;  great, 
gre&t-eat,'  friend,  tnend-ship  ;  form,  re-form-atio/i. 

?  In  dividing  words  into  their  syllables,  we  are  guided  chiefly  by 
the  ear. 

?  26.  We  should  give  to  every  syllable  precisely  those  letters 
which  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  word  gives  to  it. 

Ex. — Su-prem-a-cy,  il-lit-er-ate,  pro-cras-tin-ate,  mil-li-ner-y,  pref-ace,  as-tron- 
o-my,  rev-e-la-tion,  oth-er,  es-quire,  val-e-tu-di-na-ri-an,  ma-ter-nal,  bas-ket,  bar-ber, 
bur-uish,  twin-kle,  ho-ri-zon,  men-tal,  Hel-en,  Rob-ert,  E-liz-a-beth. 

To  write  hurn-ish,  blanlc-et,  e-nqnire,  as  Webster  sometimes  divides  these  and  similar  words,  might 
suggest  that  the  words  are  derived  from  hum,  blank,  and  squire. 

t  27.  Words  should  generally  be  divided  according  to  their  pre- 
fixes, suffixes,  or  grammatical  endings,  if  they  have  any  ;  and  com- 
pound words  should  be  divided  into  their  simple  ones. 

Ex. — Ee-new,  ring-let,  great-er,  wis-est,  sin-fal,  ful-ly,  skil-less,  grass-y,  rent. 
ed,  drill-ing,  weav-er,  mill-wheel,  boat-swain,  fore-most,  whos-ever,  wher-ever, 
aa-otlier. 

?  28.  When  derivation  and  pronunciation  conflict,  the  division 
must  be  made  according  to  the  pronunciation. 

Ex. — Ap-a-thy,  not  a-path-y ;  rec-ol-lec-tion  (remembrance),  big-a-my,  as-oribe, 
pred-i-cate,  in-det-i-nite,  tner-mom-e-ter. 


78  OHTHOGRAPPIY. SPELLING. 

?  29.  A  word  having  more  syllables  than  one,  may  be  divided  at 
the  end  of  a  line,  but  only  at  the  close  of  a  syllable.      See  this  page. 

?  The  part  in  either  line  should  consist  of  at  least  more  letters  than  one, 
and  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  is  not  likely  to  be  misconceived  at  the 
first  impression. 

Such  words  as  a-long^  a-gain^  o-Uo,  craft-v,  read-y,  curve-d,  curv-e,d,  give-n, 
safe-r^  and  rhyme-r^  should  rather  stand  -wholly  in  one  hne ;  and  such  words  as 
accomplices  J  accompli-ces,  advantages^  should  rather  be  divided  accom-plices,  advan- 
tages. 

?  30.  Two  or  more  words  expressing  but  one  conception,  or 
habitually  used  together  as  the  term  for  one  object  or  idea,  should 
be  compounded. 

Ex. — Steamboat,  railroad,  starlight,  beehive,  knitting-needle,  spelling-book. 

Tell  whether  primitive,  derivative,  or  compound;  also  whether  a  monosyllable,  a  dissyl- 
lable, a,  trisyllable,  or  a  polysyllable : — 

Man,  manhood,  man-eater,  management,  confidential,  uninformed,  uninflam- 
mable, penitentiary,  nevertheless,  horseman,  Mussulman,  nightingale,  whereabout. 

From  what  derived  : — 

Lilies,  knives,  greater,  authorize,  farthest,  speaks,  speaking,  applied,  written, 
frosty,  inequality,  unprepared,  happiest,  personification,  insensibleness. 

Mention  the  prefixes  and  the  suffi,xes  ;— 

Unbousfht,  unworthy,  imperftict,  artist,  artful,  reconstruct,  fortify,  fortification, 
overflow,  bespattering,  tascination,  disproportionably,  uapremeditated. 

Divide  into  syllables : — 

Another,  luscious,  varnish,  tickle,  musket,  extraordinary,  possession,  monkey, 
western,  paternal,  reformation,  recollect,  recreate,  impetus,  impotence,  grafter, 
rafter,  charter,  chanter,  waiter,  traitor,  colony,  felony,  pitcher,  lounger,  noisy, 
sorcery,  gallery,  artery,  chilling,  willing,  killing,  azure,  nation,  siren,  brisket, 
associate,  pronunciation,  athwart,  Ariadne,  Diana. 

Correct  the  following : — 

Plan-ting,  un-loa-ding,  ma-keth,  sto-ring,  or-ga-ni-zing,  e-squire,  syst-era,  raig 
ht,  swif-test,  go-vern,  cons-ti-tu-tion,  va-le-tu-di-na-ri-an,  mark-et,  stor-my. 

A  white  washed  house.  Double  entry  book  keeping.  I  saw  a  humming  bird 
and  heard  a  mocking  bird.  A  white  oak,  a  sugar  tree,  and  a  slippery  elm.  Five 
gallon  kegs  and  three  foot  measures.    Some  glass-houses  are  made  in  glass  houses. 

SPELLING. 

?  jSpelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by  their  proper  let- 
ters. This  art  must  be  learned  chiefly  from  spelling-books,  dictiona- 
ries, and  observation  in  reading. 

Our  language  having  been  formed  from  several  others,  its  words  are  often 
Bpelled  very  irregularly,  and  sometimes  difter  widely  from  the  pronunciation;  so 
that  scarcely  any  useful  rules  can  be  given,  except  a  few  for  spelling  derivative 
words. 

Rule  I.— Doubling^. 

?  31.  Words  of  one  syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant  pre- 
ceded by  a  single  vowel ;  and  words  of  more  syllables,  ending  in  the 
same  way,  with  the  accent  fixed  on  the  last  syllable, — double  the 
consonant  before  a  vowel  in  the  derivative  word. 

In  other  cases,  no  doubling  takes  place. 

Ex. — 1.  Sad,  sadder,  saddest;  rebel,  rebelled,  reseller,  rebelling,  rebell'wn  ;  fop. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING.  79 

foppish,  foppeT^ ;  quit,  quitting,  acquittal;  in,  inner i  up,  upper;  wit,  witty,  witti- 
cmn ;  quiz,  quizzed,    Ex ception:  Gas,  gases  or  gasses. 

2.  Seal,  sealed  ;  call,  called;  gild,  gilded;  hard,  Tiarder,  liardest ;  infer,  infer- 
ence ;  travel,  traveled,  traveling,  traveler ;  bias,  biased  ;  worship,  worshiping  ;  tax, 
ea^W,  ^a.i-«s.    X final  =  two  consonants,  A;s  or  ^^  ;  therefore  it  is  never  dxjubled. 

Tell  the  difference  between — 

Bohed.  and  robbed;  striped  and  stripped;  hoping  and  hopping ;  lared  and  larred  ; 
doting  and  dotting  ;  sparing  and  sparring  ;  fated  and  fatted^  pining  and  pinning  ; 
puling  and  pulling  ;  raged  and  ragged  ;  waging  and  wagging ;  planing  and  jpZoTi- 
?>.iw^  ;  M/;^r  and  hatter  ;  spiting  and  spitting  ;  spited  and  spitted;  scared  and  scarred  ; 
hiding  and  bidding. 

Some  good  writers  double  Z  in  the  derivatives  of  the  following  words  : — 

Apparel,  bevel,  bowel,  cancel,  carol,  cavil,  channel,  chisel,  counsel,  cudgel,  dishevil, 
flrivel,  duel,  enibowel,  enamel,  empanel,  equal,  gambol,  gravel,  grovel,  handsel,  hatchel, 
impanel,  imperil,  jewel,  kennel,  label,  level,  libel,  marshal,  marvel,  model,  panel,  parcel, 
pencil,  peril,  pistol,  pommel,  quarrel,  ravel,  revel,  rival,  rowel,  shovel,  shrivel,  snivel, 
tassel,  trammel,  travel,  tunnel,  unravel,  victual,  "Traveller" — Prescott,  Bryant;  •'mar- 
vellous, carolled" — Irving;  "worshipping" — Bancroft.  These  writers  were  so  taught  in 
youth;    hence  their  practice:    but   such  doubling  is  against  analogy,  and   generally  un- 


Soraetimes,  however,  I,  and  perhaps  p,  may  be  doubled,  to  prevent  the  lia- 
bility of  mistaking  the  word  for  some  other ;  as,  Gravelly  Irom  gravel, — gravely 
from  grave  ;  kidnapper  from  kidnap. 

A  few  words  from  the  Latin  are  derived  according  to  the  Latin  primitive, 
and  not  according  to  the  English ;  as,  Metal  (Lat.  raetallum),  metallic,  metal- 
lurgy ;  inflame,  inflammation ;  excel,  excellent ;  appeal,  appellant. 

Rule  IL-Final  Y. 

?  32.  Y  final,  preceded  by  a  consonant  and  followed  by  any 
letter  except  i,  is  changed  into  i  in  the  derivative  word. 

Ex. — Fly,  flies ;  glory,  glories,  glorify, _  glorified,  glorifying,  glorification  ;  try, 
trial;  bury,  turial ;  merry,  merrily,  merriment;  ^'ity,  pitiable;  ivy,  ivied. 

Excep  tions :  The  derivatives  of  sly,  dry,  and  shy  ;  as,  slyly,  dryly,  shyness  ; 
but  Noah  Webster  and  Goold  Brown  prefer  to  make  these  conform  with  the  Kule. 

?  33.  Y  final,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  or  followed  by  *,  remains 
unchanged  in  the  derivative  word. 

Ex. — Boy,  boys  ;  gay,  gayer,  gayest,  gayety ;  cry,  cried,  cryiny,  crier  ;  alhiy,  al- 
layed, allaying;  buoy,  buoyant,  buoyancy  ;  destroy,  destroyer,  destroying;  annoy, 
annoyance  ;  chimney,  chimneys ;  joy,  joyful. 

Exceptions :  V&y, paid;  Bay,  said  ;  lay,  laid;  day,  daily ;  stay,  staid  {yg- 
mained,  stayed  (checked). 

Rule  III.— Final  E. 

!  34.  E  final,  when  silent,  is  rejected  before  a  vowel  in  the  de- 
rivative word. 

Ex. — Bite,  biting;  force,  forced,  forcing,  forcible'  grieve,  grievance,  grievous  ; 
blue,  bluish;  rogue,  roguish  ;  rattle,  rattling  ;  but  be,  being. 

1  35.  But  when  necessary  to  preserve  the  pronunciation  or  iden- 
tity of  the  word,  it  is  retained. 

Ex. — Y\ee,  fleeing  ;  agree,  agreeable  ;  singe,  singeing;  trace,  traceable;  swingo. 
su^ingeing  ;  courage,  courageous  ;  mile,  mileage ;  blue,  blaey=bluish  ;  suo,  "  sueing.''^ 
Better,—"  suing,''''  as  we  always  write  construe,  construing. 

Tell  the  difference  between — 

Dying  and  dyaing  ;  singing  and  singeing  ;  swinging  and  swingeing. 


80  ORTHOGRAPHY.— 'SPELLING. 

?  36.  Words  ending  in  ie  change  i  into  y,  before  i,  to  prevent  the 
doubhng  of  ^. 

Ex. — Die,  dying  ;  vie,  vyin^ ;   tie,    tying  ;  lie,  lying. 

?  37.  E  final  is  retained  before  a  consonant  in  the  derivative 
word. 

Ex. — Base,  baseless,  hasement ;  rue,  rueful  i  definite,  definitely,  definiteness , 
eye,  eyelet ,' shoe,  shoeless ,'  Tperverse,  j)erver$ely ,'  whole,  wholesome,  wholesomely, 
wliolesale  ;  release,  releaseraent. 

?  38.  But  when  not  necessary  to  preserve  the  pronunciation  of 
the  word,  it  is  sometimes  rejected. 

Ex. — Due,  duly ;  true,  truly ;  awe,  awful:  also  ^ judge,''  Judgment ,'  lodge,  lodg- 
ment, &c. ;  because  the  d  always  softens  the  g,  and  renders  the  e  unnecessary. 

Rule  IV.— Whetlier  Ize  or  Ise. 

?  39.  If  the  word  has  a  kindred  meaning  without  the  ending,  or 
with  a  different  ending,  add  ize;  if  nq,t,  ise. 

Ex. — Author,  authorize  ;  civil,  civilize  ;  theory,  theorize ;  dramatist,  dramatize; 
organ,  organize.    JRevise,  compromise,  enterprise,  surprise. 

This  Rule  has  some  exceptions,  as  criticise,  exercise,  assize ;  yet  I  think  it  may  well  be 
applied  to  all  words  of  this  class  still  unsettled  in  orthography,  and  to  such  as  maybe  formed 
hereafter.  Some  highly  respectable  modern  British  authors,  perhaps  to  show  their  learning, 
use  ise  in  almost  every  instance. 

Rule  v.— No  Trebling^. 

?  40.  The  final  letter  may  remain  or  be  doubled,  but  not  trebled, 

in  the  derivative  word. 

Ex. — Harmless,  harmlessly ;  odd,  oddly  ;  possess,  possession,  not  possesssion  ; 
faU, fully,  not  fullly ;  stiff,  stiffness ;  chan,  chaffinch;  bliss,  blissful;  ill,  illness' 
dull,  dullness  ;  tall,  tallness.  'We  find  treeen  and  gallless  ;  but  these  words  shoula 
have  the  hyphen, — tree-en,  gall-less. 

Rule  VI.— Compounds. 

?  41.  When  simple  words  form  compounds,  they  generally  retain 

their  own  letters,  especially  if  a  hyphen  still  separates  them. 

Ex. — Barefoot,  housewife,  lady-like,  party-spirit,  well-grounded,  hasty-pud- 
ding, thereabouts,  juryman,  whereby,  wherein,  whereunto,  wherefore,  wherewith, 
whereon.  But  'where',  wherever;  whose,  whosever ;  sheep,  shepherd;  feet,  fet- 
lock ;  pass,  pastime  ;  newly  made,  new-made. 

?  42.  One  I  from  II  is  frequently  dropped  ;  and  the  apostrophe 

in  possessives  always,  when  there  is  no  hyphen. 

Ex. — Always,  welcome,  handful,  fulfiU,  heartshorn,  boatsman  :  and  according  to 
Dr.  Worcester,  and  some  of  the  best  of  our  old  living  writers,  wilful,  skilful,  ful- 
n£S8,  d/ulness,  chilness,  instalm£nt,  inthralment ;  but  I  should  rather  be  governed 
here  by  analogy,  and  prefer,  as  Dr.  Webster  does,  skillful,  willful,  fullness,  dull- 
ness, chillness,  installment,  inthrallrnent.      See  the  preceding  Kule. 

Rule  VII.— Final  F,  L,  or  S. 

?  43.  Monosyllables  ending  with  /,  Z,  ors,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  the  final  consonant.  All  other  words  ending  with  any 
other  consonant,  in  the  same  way,  do  not. 

Ex. — Skiff,  off,  hil],  shall,  bliss,  grass ;  car,  drug,  nod,  mob. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. — SPELLING.  81 

Excettoons:  As,  gas,  lias,  was,  yes,  Ms,  is,  this,  us,  pus,  thus,  nil,  sol,  sal 
(salt),  bul  (flounder). 

Exceptions :  Abb  (yarn),  ebb,  add,  odd,  e<^g',  jagg,  ragg  (stone),  inn,  err, 
burr,  purr,  butt,  buzz,  fuzz,  yarr  ^  and  some  proper  names,  as  Bodd,  Hogg,  Pitt, 
P/vscott.  The  verbs  mimic,  'physiC,  and  traffic,  mast  assume  k  with  an  ending  that 
needs  it  to  preserve  the  sound ;  as,  Mimicked,  trajiching. 


%  F\s  sometimes  changed  into  v,  in  derivatives ;  as,  Knife,  knives ;  mischief, 
viisdiievous. 

?  An  apostrophe  prevents  the  effect  of  a  Rule;  as,  Fancy,  fancied,  fancy^d; 
Mary,  Mary^s ;  ii.y,fly^s. 

Always  c-ei,  never  c-i«;  always  c-ian  for  the  person  who ;  eleven  e-fies — obrefy. 
calefy,  defy,  humefy,  liquefy,  madefy, putrefy,  rarefy,  8twvefy,tabefy,  torrefy;  all 
the  others  are  i-Jies  ;  and  as  to  a-llea  and  i-bles,  look  sharply  and  remember. 

?  Some  words  may  be  spelled  in  two  or  more  different  ways,  with 
good  authority  for  each. 

Ex. — Keg,  cag;  plough,  plow;  inquire,  enquire ;  flection,  flexion  ;  connection, 
connexion;  bight,  heigiit;  centre,  center;  metre,  meter;  hominy,  homony,  hom- 
mony ;  moccasin,  moccason ;  masquito,  mosquito,  muscheto,  &c. 

?  44.  Some  letter  or  letters  of  a  word  are  sometimes  omitted, 
and  what  is  left  is  sometimes  changed  and  combined  with  another 
word.     Such  shortening  is  called  contraction. 

An  apostrophe  (')  is  usually  put  iu  the  place  of  the  letter  or  letters  omitted. 

Ex. — Th'  or  t',  for  the  ;  'm,  am ;  'rt,  art;  're,  are ;  's,  is,  us,  or  has ;  've,  have; 
'd,  liadoY  would  ;  '11,  will ;  ma'am,  madam  ;  n't,  not ;  don't,  do  not;  won't,  will  notj 
doesn't,  does  not ;  shan't,  shall  not — Addmon  ;  can't,  can  not  ;  't,  it;  'tis  n't,  it  is 
not;  'tis  or  it's,  it  is;  'gan,  began;  pr'ythee,  I  pray  thee;  couldn't,  could  not ; 
'cause,  because;  e'en,  even;  e'er,  ever;  ne'er,  never ;  o'er,  over  ;  whate'er,  what- 
ever; 'em,  them;  'gainst,  against ;  'bove,  above;  'midst,  amidst;  'neath,  beneath ; 
wi',  with;  i',  in;  o',  of;  o'clock,  of  the  clock. 

?  45.  A  word  is  sometimes  severed  by  an  intervening  word.    Sach 

separation  is  called  tmesis. 

Ex. — "  To  us  icari"  =Toward  us.  "  On  which  side  soever''"' ='0n  whichsoever 
fiide.     "  The  live  day  ^;ip'"=The  livelong  day. 

?  Generally  speaking,  spelling  and  pronunciation  are  the  better, 
the  better  they  agree,  and  serve  to  distinguish  words  that  differ  in 
meaning. 

Exercises  in  Spelling^. 

Most  of  the  following  words  are  those  which  I  have  found  spelled  erroneously  in  the  compositions 
oT  students,  on  sign-boards,  in  letters  received,  and  in  the  newspapers  and  other  hasty  literature  ot 
our  country.    The  exercises  may  also  teach  the  student  where  the  dangers  of  spelling  lurk. 

Spdl  the  following  words,  and  occasionally  give  the  Rule  where  one  applies : — 

Skating,  sliding,  striving,  druggist,  forcible,  pottage,  quarries,  rubbed, 
equaled,  hoarseness,  agonized,  profited,  benefited,  allotted,  gayety,  witticisms, 
confessedly,  valuable,  usage,  chastisement,  steadily,  steadfast,  laziness,  tUl,  un- 
til, ruling,  dreaded,  truly,  recurred,  recurrence,  conferred,  conference,  prefer- 
red, preferable,  preference,  embodiment,  whiggery,  fulfilled,  lodging,  listlessly, 
dronisli,  almost,  very,  welcome,  villain,  vilify,  shipped,  paid,  ceaseless,  daily, 
servilely,  irreconcilably,  affiance,  denial,  syllabic,  parallelogrammical,  parallel- 
ogrammatic,  improvements,  moneyed,  chillness,  referred,  reference.  Italicize, 
modorniz&d,  wagon,    offered,  colonized,  hackneyed,  movables,    desirable,   bap- 


82  ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. 

tized,  valleys,  wearisome,  seated,  quizzed,  galloped,  civilization,  ranner,  use- 
ful, intermittent,  realize,  vying,  unshrubbed,  salable,  aggregate,  indispensably,, 
belligerent,  plausible,  privilege,  accompaniment,  buzz,  hum,  replied,  loneliness, 
portrayed,  regretted,  getting,  transferable,  transferree,  messmate,  parish,  snap- 
pish, millinery,  slavish,  curable,  tunable,  tamable,  welfare,  thereby,  wherever, 
thereafter,  pastime,  sometimes,  something,  opportunity,  misstate,  misspell,  mis- 
spend, gemmed,  webbed,  haggard,  sinner,  snobbish,  terseness,  fringing,  corse 
let,  fusible,  sedgy,  smoky,  ridgy,  swimmer,  dragged,  bluish,  stylish,  gluing, 
blurred,  smutty,  hedge-row,  festering,  disbursement,  piquant,  obliquely,  pro- 
peller, pommel,  remittance,  revival,  contrivance,  rehearsal,  debatable,  com- 
muning, pennyweight,  perversely,  alcoholize,  generalissimo,  clergyman,  per- 
sonification, thriftily,  fortieth,  whetted,  demurrer,  sluggish,  grievous,  proselyt- 
isra,  parallelism,  vandalism,  galvanize,  magnetize,  anglicize,  knobby,  liqueflable, 
charmer,  visitor,  realist,  squatter,  broad-brimmed,  dullness,  pitiable,  penniless, 
likelihood,  handicraft,  merchandise,  organization,  worshipers,  cities,  jockeys, 
dizziness,  gruffly,  scaly,  solely,  wholly,  doubUngs,  hying,  spied,  spy-glass. 

Equivalent  Sounds. 

?  In  orthograpny,  we  are  most  liable  to  err  wherever  a  different  spell- 
ing would  produce  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  sound, 

?  Different  vowels  or  different  vowel  combinations  frequently  produce 
the  same  sound. 

?  Different  consonants  are  sometimes  equivalent  in  sound. 

?  The  single  and  the  doubled  consonant  are  often  equivalent  in  sound. 

Spell  the  following  words:  Brier,  friar,  actor,  instructor,  arbiter,  parlor 
survivor,  fibre,  inventor,  cellar,  elixir,  proprietor,  scholar,  martyr,  mortar, 
receiver,  conqueror,  regulator,  grammar,  brazier,  grasier,  beverage,  porridge^ 
selvage,  dependent,  defendant,  tranquillity,  gentility,  vitiate,  vicious,  ancient, 
transient,  noxious,  musician,  conscious,  cetaceous,  provincial,  prudential,  inured, 
encroaching,  incumbent,  encountered,  inculcate,  include,  entirely,  intrude,  en- 
joyment, gem,  jet,  dressed,  distressed,  chest,  assessed,  relinquish,  extinguish, 
bombasin,  magazine,  submarine,  mandarin,  chancellor,  shalloon,  control,  en- 
roll, patrol,  appellant,  membranous,  tyrannous,  herring,  harass,  embarrass,  sense, 
pence,  defense,  license,  district,  description,  sacrifice,  criticise,  conducive,  de- 
fensive, intercede,  supersede,  fleece,  geese,  idiosyncrasy,  secrecy,  hypocrisy, 
nutritious,  delicious,  sententious,  reflection,  complexion,  chronology,  crystal, 
chocolate,  saccharine,  kitchen,  martin,  curtain,  fragment,  raiment,  separate, 
degenerate,  exhilarate,  dereliction,  predilection,  irreligious,  sacrilegious,  repent- 
ance, dependence,  succeed,  precede,  secede,  proceed,  regale,  prevail,  prepare, 
impair,  despair,  compare,  sneak,  shriek,  brevier,  veneer,  revere,  buccaneer, 
financier,  shote,  float,  dote,  naught,  groat,  sought,  awkward,  though,  through, 
tough,  slough,  cough,  hiccough,  miscellaneous,  ceremonious,  weasel,  weeviJ, 
extirpate,  foeman.  yeoman,  nuisance,  sieve,  receive,  mien,  relieve,  seize,  receipt,, 
lien,  ceihng,  genteel,  repeal,  tearful,  cheerful,  screecli-owl,  lurched,  pexhed, 
searched,  gauge,  business,  gourd,  hoard,  horde,  sword,  brew,  glue,  labor,  error, 
deposit,  composite,  dactyl,  ductile,  chlorite,  formula,  anomaly,  paroxysm,  caus- 
able,  vendible,  feasible,  seizable,  boisterous,  disastrous,  incumbrance,  protuber- 
ance, cemetery,  cerulean,  ethereal,  grandeur,  nucleus,  odious,  analysis,  paralysis, 
soothe,  smooth,  blowze,  chouse,  rheumatism,  diphthong,  public,  monastic,  logic, 
click,  target,  braggard,  exaggerate,  refrigerate,  garrison,  orison,  partisan,  parti- 
sanship, visible,  admissible,  copy,  poppy,  radish,  reddish,  declamatory,  inflam- 
matory, pontiff,  pontifical,  retaliate,  palliate,  diligence,  intelligence,  ballad, 
salad,  balance,  bilious,  billiards,  postillion,  vermilion,  rebellion,  battalion,  fallacy, 
polioy,    millennial,    iniquity,    impanel,  innuendo,    cabin,    cabbage,   recounotte'r. 


DERIVATION    OF    WORDS.  88 

recommend,  centre,  theatre,  horrid,  florid,  crystallize,  immortalize,  satellite, 
tyrannize,  drizzly,  grisly,  tansy,  frenzy,  buttress,  mattress,  matrass,  caterpillar, 
rapper,  rapid,  bigot,  maggot,  garret,  claret,  stopper,  proper,  copper,  fodder, 
soder,  valid,  pallid,  dissyllable,  trisyllable,  tussle,  rustle,  tenant,  pennant,  tiny, 
finny,  gizzard,  wizard,  threshold. 

?  The  most  ludicrous  blunders  are  usually  made  by  the  misapplication 
of  those  words  which  agree  in  pronunciation,  but  differ  in  spelling  and 
meaning. 

Formula. — Incorrect :  the  -word (speZZ,  jrronounce,  and  define)^  is  here  mistaken  for 

{spell,  pronounce,  and  define). 

Correct  the  errors :  The  Roman  augers  pretended  to  foretell  future  events. 
He  sold  all  his  manners  for  a  small  sum.  Miners  are  not  allowed  to  vote  here. 
The  weather  may  be  easily  distinguished  by  a  small  belle.  The  benches  were 
all  in  tears,  one  above  another.  My  boots  are  well-souled,  and  full  of  tax.  We 
intend  to  start  a  weakly  paper  here.  I  used  my  toe  for  wadding.  The  oar  was 
completely  melted.  The  wind  blue  away  the  blew  smoke.  His  bier  was  to 
him,  not  only  drink,  but  food  and  lodging.  The  apothecary  sold  him  six  pains 
for  fifty  cents.  Hawks  pray  on  other  birds.  The  beach  stood  on  the  beech. 
The  flour  was  kept  fresh  in  a  pitcher  of  water.  Cleaning  and  dying  done  here, 
according  to  order.  The  cobbler  put  his  all  into  his  pocket.  My  dear  A  nt. 
She  had  many  airs  to  inherit  the  estate.  She  went  with  lier  bow  to  church. 
Do  you  hke  currents  with  cream  and  sugar  ?  He  sewed  all  the  seed.  They 
drank  all  the  champaign.  The  judge  immediately  baled  the  prisoner.  The  mar- 
tial had  a  very  marshal  look.  He  put  the  whole  prophet  into  his  pocket.  The 
capital  is  always  situated  in  the  capitol.  The  bridal  was  in  the  barn.  Tlie 
desert  was  brought  in  by  a  sprightly  mulatto.  His  reward  was  greater  than 
his  dessert.  The  principle  is  sick.  I  will  right  the  write  word.  His  chin  was 
soon  heeled.  She  rung  all  the  close.  The  quire  sung  very  well.  Every  bol' 
on  the  jdace  is  fiUed  with  milk.  His  vices  were  all  bought  by  some  other  black- 
smith. The  veins  are  governed  by  the  wind.  All  these  barrels  are  tor  sail,  at 
ten  o'clock.     He  was  bread  for  the  church. 


,      4.  DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 

This  section  belongs  partly  to  Orthogrophy  and  partly  to  Etymology,  or  lies  between  them. 

?  Words  are  either  primitive  (or  radical)^  derivative^  or  com- 
pound. 

?  The  elements  of  words,  in  regard  to  meaning,  are  roots^  prefixes^ 
and  suffixes. 

?  Roots  are  either  native  or  foreign,  an(3  sometimes  much  dis- 
guised. 

We  have  not  room  in  this  book  to  treat  of  the  roots  of  our  language,  except  to  define  Incident- 
Rlly  and  briefly  a  few  of  the  most  common. 

?  46.  The  same  root  may  frequently  be  combined  with  several 
different  prefixes  or  suffixes,  or  have  more  than  one  at  the  same  time, 
or  be  combined  with  some  other  root. 

Ex. — Struct  (build),  instruct,  construct,  re-construct  ;  thermos  (heat),  metron 
(measure),  thermometer. 

?  Prefixes  usually  modify  the  sense,  without  changing  the  part 
of  speech. 


94r  DERIVATION    OF    WORDS. PREFIXES. 

?  Suffixes  usually  modify  the  part  of  speech,  without  materially 
affecting  the  sense  in  other  respects. 

Ex.—  De  (from,  separation),  (ie-stroy,  de-stroj-er,  de-straat-ive,  de-strxxct' 
ive-ly,  de-fAtmat^ve-ness,  de-struct-ion,  in-de-strnct-ive,  in-de-strnat-ible,  in-de-iitr\xctr 
ibU-ity. 

?  47.  There  are  different  prefixes  capable  of  expressing  the  same 
sense,  and  there  are  also  different  suffixes  capable  of  expressing  the 
same  sense  ;  because  the  choice  is  to  be  determined  not  merely  by 
the  meaning  of  the  appendage,  but  also  by  euphony,  analogy,  and 
the  character  of  the  root. 

Ex. — Generous,  -Mw.-generous ;  accurate,  ■iw-accurate ;  throne,  ie-tlirone,  un- 
tlirone ;  confess,  confess-iow. ;  acknowledge,  acknowledg-men.^. 

?  48.  The  meaning  of  a  prefix  is  sometimes  very  obvious,  some- 
times obscure,  and  sometimes  it  has  faded  altogether. 

Ex. —  C^-hold,  ^m/is-plant,  iTj^correct ;  ^mns-act,  jper-fect,  w/iier-stand  ;  com- 
plete, be-%t\r. 

?  49.  In  making  a  combined  form,  some  of  the  parts  frequently 
undergo  a  change  for  the  sake  of  euphony  or  analogy.  This  consists 
in  the  change,  omission,  or  insertion  of  some  letter  or  letters.  The 
initial  consonant  of  the  root  often  requires  the  final  letter  of  the 
prefix  to  be  like  it. 

Ex. — Con-lect,  col-lect ;  dis-fer,  dlf-fer  ;  in-moderate,  im-moderate  ;  con-operate, 
co-operate;  dis-vulge,  di-vulge ;  a-archy,  an-archy ;  mucilage-ous,  mucilag-inous. 

PREFIXES. 

The  prefixes  In  Roman  letters  are  Latin ;  in  Italic,  Greek ;  in  black,  Saxon  or  native. 

A  ;  on,  OT,  at,  to.     In  a  few  words  it  is  merely  intensive. 
Form.,  sjjell,  and  define : — 
Bed,  ground,  shore,  cross,  sleep,  pace,  slant,  field,  side,  wake,  rise 
Thus:  Abed;  a — ^b-e-d-bed — abed  ;  on  or  in  bed. 

A,  AB,  ABS;  from,  separation. 

Yert  (turn) ;  solve  (loosen),  rupt  (broken),  sorb  (suck) ;  tract  (draw),  tain  (hold). 

Ad,    a,    AC,    AF,    AG,    AL,    AN,    AP,    AR,   AS,    AT ;    to,  at. 

Join,  judge ;  mount,  scend  (climb) ;  cord,  cuse  (charge) ;  fix,  fusion  (pouring) ; 
gress  (step),   gravato  (heavy) ;    lot,    luvial  (washing) ;   nex  (join),  nihilato 
(nothing) ;  portion,   predate  (price) ;  rogate  (lay  claim) ;  sure,  sail  (leap) ; 
tract  (draw),  tribute  (give). 
A,  AN;  without,  privation. 

Theist  (God),  chromatic  (color),  pathy  (feeling),  torn  (cut) ;  archy  (government). 
AMPHI;  two,  double.  Theatre,  bious  (living). 

AN'A ;  up,  throughout,  parallel,  back,  again. 

Tomy  (cutting),  lysis  (separation),  logy  (discourse),  gram  (letter),  baptist. 
AxTE ;  fore,  before.     Chamber,  date,  meridian  (noon),  cedent  (going). 
A  NT  I,  ANT;  against,  opposition. 

Bilious,  febrile,  pathy  (foeUng),  dote  (given);  arctic,  agonist  (contend). 
APO,  AP;  from,  off. 

Geo  (earth),  strophe  (turning),  logy ;  h(;lion  (sun). 


DERIVATION    OF    WORDS. PREFIXES.  85 

Be  ;  action  directed  to  an  object;  intensity ;  by,  near. 

Daub,  dew,  moan,  lie,  set,  siege,  cloud,  spatter,  take ;  side,  fore,  cause. 
Bbn"e  ;  good,  well     Pit  (deed),  volent  (wishing),  factor  (doer),  diction  (saying). 
Bis,  bi;  twice,  two. 

Cuit  (baked  ;  angular,  valve,  gamy  (marriage),  sect  (cut),  ped  (foot). 
€ATA,  CAT;  down,  against,  throughout.     (The  opposite  of  ajja.) 

Ract  (flowing),  strophe,  chresis  (use) ;  hedral  (seat),  holic  (whole), 
Cliigum,  cirou;  round,  about. 

Navigate,  jacent  (lyiug),    spect  (looking),    stance  (standing) ;    late   (borne), 
itous  (going), 
CiS ;  on  this  side.  Alpine,  Atlantic. 

Con,  go,  cog,  col,  com,  cor  ;  with,  together,  jointly. 

Join,  tract,  fuse  (pour),  veno  (come),  ceive   (take),  flict  (strike) ;  extent,  heir, 
operate;  nate  (born);    league,  lect  (gather);    press,    mingle,  pose  (place); 
respond,  relative. 
Contra,  ccntro,  counter  ;  against,  in  opposition,  answering  to. 

Diet  (say),  vene,  distinguish ;  vert ;  part,  pressure,  feit  (make),  act,  plead. 
Db  ;  from,  down,  destruction. 

Tract,  "press,  throne,  scend,  tact  (cover),  tach  (tie),  spise  (look),  moralize. 
DIA,  DI;  through,  across.  Meter,  logue  (speech),  gonal  (angle). 

Dis,  or,  DIF;  away,  apart,  undoing,  negation. 

Join,  organize,  appear,  ease,  sect,  tract,  cover,   perse  (scatter),   please,   inter, 
order;  verge  (inchne),  stance,  gress;  fer  (bear),  fuse  (,pour). 
E,  EX,  EC,  EP ;  out,  out  of,  from. 

Ject  (throw),  lect  (pick),  vade  (go),  mit  (send) ;  pectorant  (breast),   press,  pand 
(spread),  tort  (twist),  pire  (breathe) ;  centric  (centre),  stasy  (standing);  fuse, 
feet  (done),  fulgence  (shining). 
JEW  (Greek  or  French),  EM;  in,  into,  upon. 

Tangle,  shrine,  rage,  gulf,  largo,  grave  (write),   tomb ;  broider,  blazon,   bark, 
bitter,  brace  (arm). 
EPI,  EP;  upon,  after.  Taph  (tomb),  demic  (people),  logue;  ode. 

Extra  ;  beyond.  Ordinary,  vagant  (going),  mural  (wall). 

JFor,  fore  ;  from,  against,  the  contrary.  Bid,  get,  sake  (seek),  give,  swoar;  go 
Fore,  for ;  before. 

Tell,  run,  see,  know,  taste,  man,  father,  noon,  arm ;  ward. 
HYPER;  beyond,  over,  excess.  Borean  (north),  critical,  meter  (measure). 

HYPO ;  under-.  Thesis  (placing),  sulphuric,  crite  (thoughts). 

In,  ig,  lu,  IL,  IR ;  not,  privation,  the  contrary. 

Human,  discreet,  elastic,   consistent ;  noble ;  modest,    mortal,   patient ;  legal, 
liberal;  reverent,  regular,  resolute. 
In,  im,  il,  ir;  in,  into,  upon. 

Flame,   struct,  lay,   here  (stick),  fleet   (bend),  wrought;    plant,  pearl,   print, 
press ;  luminate  or  .lustrate  (throw  light) ;  radiate  (throw  rays). 
Inter;  between.  Weave,  Une,  cede,  regnum  (reigo),  mix  marriage. 

Intro;  inwards,  within.  Duce  (lead),  mission  (sending). 

META,  METH;  over,  beyond,  with,  change. 

Thesis,  raorphose  (form),  physics,  phor  (convey) ;  od  (way). 

M  is ;  wrong,  ill  -A.pply,  call,  deed,  use,  spell,  take,  fortune. 

NON  ;  negation.  Conductor,  conformity,  sense,  resideAt,  payment. 


86  DERIVATION    OF    WORDS. PREFIXES. 

Ob,  oc,  of,  op  ;  in  the  way,  to,  against 

Trude  (thrust),  ject  (throw),  tain  ;  cur,  casion  (falling) ;  fer ;  pose,  press. 

©lit ;  heyond,  not  within.       Bid,  grow,  last,  live,  let,  skirt,  side,  law,  cast. 

Over;  above,  beyond,  excess. 

Balance,  hang,  top,  leap,  spread,  do,  flow,  look,  wise,  load,  shoot,  value. 
FAEA,  FAR ;  beside,  against,  from. 

Box  (opinion),  graph  (writing),  phrase,  site  (food) ;  helion,  ody  (song). 
Per,  pel  ;  through,  by. 

Use,  form,  enuial  (year),  ceive,  sist  (stand),  feet,  chance,  cent  (hundred) ;  liieicJ 
(shining). 
Peri  ;  around,  about,  near. 

Patetic  (walking),  helion,  od,  phery  (bearing),  cranium,  style  (pUlar). 
Post  ;    after.      Script  (writing),  humous  (ground),  pone  (place),  mortem  (death), 

meridian. 
Pre  ;  before. 

Judge,  mature,  engage,  dispose,  sentiment,  fer,  sume  (take),  vent  (come),  side- 
(sit),  text  (weaving). 
Preter  ;  past,  beyond.  Natural,  imperfect,  mission. 

Pro,  prof  ;  for,  forth,  forwards,  before. 

Noun,  ceed  (go),  gresa,  tect,  pel  (drive),  spect  (look),  logue ;  fer. 
Re;  again,  back. 

Build,  call,  enter,  new,  view,  pel,  sonant  (sounding),  strain  (draw),  bound. 
Retro  ;  backwards.     Cede,  vert,  spect,  grade  (walk). 
Se  ;  aside,  apart.     Cede,  elude  (shut),  cant  (cutting),  duce  (lead),  lect. 
Semi,  demi,  hemi;  half. 

Annual,  circle,  colon,  diameter,  vowel ;  god,  cannon ;  sphere. 
Sine  ;  without.  Cure  (care). 

Sub,  sue,  SUF,  sug,  sup,  bur,  SUS, — subter;  under,  underneath,  inferior. 

Soil,  divide,   marine;    cor  (run),   cumb  (lie  down);    fer,  fuse;  gest  (briug)- 
plant,  press ;  rogate  (ask) ;  tain ;  fuge  (fly),  fluent  (flowing). 
Super,  supra,  sur-;  above,  over  and  above. 

Cargo,  crescent  (growing),  fluous,  natural ;  mundane ;  pass,  charge. 
SYIi,  SYL,  STM;  with,  together. 

Thesis,  tax  (placing),   opsis  (view),   agogue   (lead);    lablo  (taking),    logism. 
(counting) ;  phony  (sound),  patl:iy  (feeling): 
Trans,  tran,  tra  ;  through,  across,  over,  on  the  other  side  of. 

Act,   plant,  gress,  Atlantic,   pose,  form,    it   (going);    scribe   (write),  scend* 
dition  (giving). 
Tri;  three.  ^    Colored,  angular,  meter,  foliate  (leaf),  ennial. 

IJai ;  not,  negation,  privation,  undoing. 

Able,  aided,  bar,  chain,  happy,  truth,  wise,  ship,  do,  twist,  horse. 

BJiidLer ;  beneath,  inferior. 

Agent,  brush,  current,  ground,  rate,  sell,  hand,  go,  mine,  sign. 
Uni  ;  one.    Corn  (horn),  form,  florous  (flowering),  parous  (producing),  valve. 

Up ;  motion  upwards,  above,  subversion. 

Turn,  raise,  rise,  hold,  laud,  hill,  right,  start,  set,  root. 

With;  against, from,  back.  Hold,  draw,  stand. 


DERIVATION    (>F    WOIIDS. — SUFFIXES.  99 

SUFFIXES. 

?  The  derivatives  of  this  class  consist  almost  entirely  of  nouns^ 
adjectives^  verbs,  and  adverbs. 

NOUNS. 

Person  or  Instrument :  Ard,  ary,  ee,  ess,  ine,  ist,  ite,  ive,  ix, 
n,  nt,  r. 

Things,  Act,  or  State:  Ade,  agfe,  al,  dom,  hood,  ice,  ics,  ion, 
ism,  ment,  ness,  nee,  ncy,  ry,  ship,  t,  th,  ude,  ure,  y. 

?  A  derived  noun  may  denote  either  a  person,  a  thing,  an  act,  or  a 
state  ;  or  it  may  denote  the  abstract  of  any  of  these.  The  "  person  who" 
must  be  either  a  doer  of  an  act,  a  recipient  of  an  act,  or  simply  one  in  some 
way  related  to  or  concerned  with  that  from  which  the  name  is  formed. 
From  the  thing,  the  mind  naturally  passes  to  whatever  is  obviously  related 
to  it ;  and  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  also  extended  accordingly.  From 
the  act,  the  mind  and  the  meaning  readily  pass  to  what  caused  the  act, — 
often  a  concrete  object,  or  an  abstract,  or  some  faculty,  skill,  or  principles, 
— or  else  to  the  result  of  the  act,  or  to  the  manner.  From  the  state,  the 
passage  is  as  easy  to  what  causes  it,  to  what  Ibllows  from  it,  to  what  sus- 
tains it,  or  to  what  necessarily  accompanies  it.  The  same  ending  is  not 
usually  confined  to  one  meaning,  but  ranges  with  the  principles  given  un- 
der the  head  of  Figures,       See  pp.  263. 

Form  and  spell,  making  the  requisite  euphonic  changes  ;  and  define  : — 

Ard. — Drunk,  dote,  slug,  dull,  cow  (verb),  Spain,  Savoy. 

Ary. — Adverse,  statute,  note,  mission. 

Ee.  (Generally  passive ;  the  person  to  whom.) — Indorse,  pay,  patent,  a.<*- 
sign,  consign,  trust,  commit,  legate,  mortgage,  lease,  less;  absent,  refuge. 

E§§,  iiie,  ix;  female. — Lion,  heir;  hero,  Joseph;  administrator. 

l§t. — Copy,  tour,  journal,  natural,  novel,  algebra,  drug,  duel,  art,  violin, 
pian-o;  drama,  -tist ;  enthusiasm,  -ast,  encomium. 

Ite. — Favor,  Israel,  Moab,  Jacob. 

Ive. — Capture,  operate. 

N. — America,  Africa,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  college,  music. 

IVt. — Claim,  -ant,  account^  inhabit,  combat,  dispute,  confide,  protest,  assist, 
assail,  appeal ;  study,  -ent,  preside ;  oppose,  -ponent ;  act,  -gent ;  receive,  -cipient. 

R. — Oversee ;  lie,  -ar,  beg,  school ;  farm,  -er,  hunt,  make,  plaster,  settle, 
pipe,  widow,  hat,  foreign ;  visit,  -or,  edit,  profess,  survive,  speculate ;  conspire, 
•ator;  compete,  -iter;  auction,  -eer,  mountain,  gazette,  pamphlet,  chario;;  cash, 
-ier,  cannon,  finance,  cloth,  glaze;  save,  -ior ;  law,  -yer,  saw;  team,  -sier,  web; 
poke,  -er  (thing),  revolve,  shut,  boil,  read,  speak. 

Diminutives.  (These  often  imply  endearment  or  contempt.) — Man,  -ikin  ; 
lamb,  -kin ;  ring,  -let,  stream,  leaf,  cover ;  lock,  -et,  mall ;  lord,  -ling,  hire,  suckle. 
Globe,  globi*Ze ;  grain,  grauwfe ;  ball,   buUet ;  cat,  kitten ;  island,  isle ;  isle,  isleL 

Ade. — Gascon,  stock,  lemon,  baluster;  stamp,  -ede. 

Age, — Use,  marry,  mile,  post,  equip,  folium  (leaf),  bond,  pupil,  parson, 
hermit,  anchor. 

AI. — Peruse,  remove,  recite,  requite,  deny,  propose,  refuse,  dismiaa 

I>Oiii. — Free,  wise,  martyr,  king,  duke. 


^  DERIVATION    OF    WORDS. SUFFIXES. 

Hood. — Child,  brother,  man,  woman,  boy,  sister,  hardy,  hyely. 

Ice. — Serve,  just,  lath,  lat-tice. 

Ics. — Poet,  harmony,  mechanic,  statist  (state),  phys  (nature). 

Ion. — Commune,  precise,  act,  reflect,  possess,  expand;  and  many  other 
words,  in  which  the  ending  shows  itself'  in  the  form  of  Hon  or  sion. 

l!«ill. — Fanatic,  despot,  critic,  hero,  baptize,  heathen. 

MeBit. — Move,  pave,  content,  case,  punish,  acquire,  agree,  arm,  battle,  com- 
plete, refresh. 

J%ce,  iicy. — Acquaint,  -ance,  concord,  resist,  observ-e,  convey;  innocent, 
•ence,  resident,  diifer,  precede;  pliant,  -ancy,  constant;  despond,  -ency,  ascend. 

I¥ess. — Good,  bad,  white,  bold,  happy,  busy,  comprehensive. 

iShip. — Partner,  scholar,  town,  workman,  hard,  friend,  lord,  court.  See  -HOOD. 

T,  th. — Constrain,  join,  restrain ;  warm,  wide,  long,  strong. 

Ude. — Disquiet,  serve,  solitary,  right,  red-. 

Ure. — Please,  depart,  moist,  architect,  seize,  legislate,  sign-ature,  nourish,  nur-. 

Y. — Honest,  modest,  discover,  grocer,  injure;  lunatic,  -acy,  private,  pirate; 
secret,  -cy  ;  hypocrite,  -sy  ;  pedant,  -ry,  gallant,  revel,  bigot,-  master ;  brew,  -&>  y, 
witch,  mocii,  hsh,  crock ;   null,  -ity^  dense,  pure,  opportune,  secure,  elastic. 

"Words  ending  in  y  or  ry,  are  often  collective  in  sense,  denoting  groups  of 
objects  or  acts;  as,  Orange-ry,  shrub-&er?/,  soldier-^/,  sorcer-^/,  trigonometry. 
So  is  the  ending  ing  not  unfrequently  collective  in  sense ;  as,  Bed,  bedding ; 
shop,  s/wpping ;  bagging,  carpeting,  hedging,  gunning  (elements  of  science  or 
science  as  drawn  from  a  multitude  of  acts  or  experiments). 

ADJECTIVES. 

Al,  an,  ar,  ate,  ble,  en,  ern,  full,  ic,  (ific,)  ile,  ine,  ish,  ive, 
nt,  ous,  some,  ward,  y,  (ly,  ary,  cry). 

?  Derivative  adjectives  generally  signify — 

Having  of  or  having  the  nature  of,  more  or  less ;  or  that  the  object 
described,  in  some  way  belongs  or  is  related  to  that  from  whose  name  tlio 
adjective  is  formed. 

The  same  word  may  frequently  be  used  either  as  an  adjective  or  as  a  noun. 

Form  and  spell,  making  the  requisite  eupJio-nic  changes  ;  and  define: — 

Al. — Nature,  nation,  origin,  parent,  ornament,  music,  autumn;  senator,  -ial^ 
manor,  matter,  part,  commerce;  spirit,  -ual,  sense,  habit;  consequence,  -tial,  in 
fluence,  essence ;   benetit,  -cial ;  no.se,  nas-,  pope,  pap-,  feast,  /est-. 

All. — Africa,  America,  Italy,  suburbs. 

Ar. — Column,  pole,  consul;  globe,  -vlar,  circle,  muscle,  title,  particle. 

Ate, — Rose,  globe,  affection,  consider,  compassion. 

Die.  (Passive,  if  from  a  transitive  verb.) — Detest,  -able,  cure,  eat,  change, 
tionor,  tolerate,  utter,  value,  fashion  ;  corrupt,  -ible,  resist,  sense,  destroy,  desiruct-, 
accede,  access-,  perceive,  percept-,  divide,  divis-. 

En.     (Of  what  substance  made.) — Beech,  hemp,  silk,  gold,  wood. 

Em. — North,  south,  cast,  west. 

Ful.  (Opposed  to  -LESS.) — Mind,  peace,  hope,  brim,  care,  waste,  cheer, 
youth,  play,  sin,  wake,  law,  mourn,  truth. 

Ic. — Angel,  hero,  poet,  sphere,  lyre;  vertex,  -ical,  dropsy;  sympathy,  -eiic, 
pathos,  theory;  barometer,   -etric,  diameter;   emblem,  -atic,   problem,  system. 


DERIVATION    OF    WORDS. SUF'S'IXES.  if 

drama ;  color,  -ific,  dolor ;  science,  -tific ;  romance,  -tic  ;  pharisee,  -saic ;  tragedy, 
'fjic  ;  Plato,  -nic. 

He. — Infant,  serve,  merchant,  mercanU,  puer  (boy). 

Ine. — Serpent,  adamant,  alkali ;  crystal,  -line. 

IsIb. — Salt,  black,  yellow,  boy,  fop,  wolf,  snap,  scare,  skit-,  Spain,  Ireland. 

Ive.  (G-enerally  active.) — Create,  abuse,  progress,  retain,  reteni-,  attend; 
perceive,  -ceptive ;  presume,  -sumptive ;  produce,  product-,  disjoin,  disjunct- ; 
adliero,  -Icesive,  corrode,  intrude,  decide ;  expel,  -pulsive,  repel. 

IV t.  (Grenerally  active.) — Tolerate,  -ant,  please,  buoy,  triumph,  luxury; 
solve,  -ent,  consist,  abhor  ;  compose,  -ponent. 

Ou§. — Bulb,  pore,  pomp,  fame,  joy,  ruin,  peril,  murder,  mountain;  bile, 
•ious,  perfidy,  malice;  pity,  -eous,  beauty,  duty;  tempest,  -loous,  contempt; 
enoiTnity,  -mou^s  ;  merit,  -orious ;  mucilage,  -inous. 

Sotne. — Toil,  tire,  dark,  glad,  quarrel,  weary.       See  -ish. 

Y. — Grass,  hill,  shade,  swamp,  meal,  flower,  mud,  cloud,  wealth,  grease, 
Bleep,  pearl,  wire ;  friend,  -ly,  beast,  brother,  heaven,  man,  time ;  residue,  -ary, 
imagine,  element ;   subsidy,  -iary  ;  contradict,  -ory,  conciliate,  declare,  satisfy. 

Upw;arcZ,  OMiward,  bulbi/erozw,  &xmigerous,  globose,  spheroz'c?,  Arabesg^e,  sta- 
ixxesque,  gvotesque. 

YERBS. 

AtC)  eii)  fy,  ish,  ize,  ise. 

?  Derivative  verbs  generally  signify — 

To  make  or  become ;  to  impart  the  thing  or  quality  to,  or  to  exercise 
it;  to  make  the  ordinary  use  of;  an  act  or  state  consisting  of  some  com- 
mon or  permanent  relation  between  the  subject  of  the  verb  and  the  thing. 

Form  and  spell,  making  the  requisite  euphonic  changes  ;  and  define : — 

Ate* — Alien,  germ,  origin,  populous,  luxury,  fabric,  facility,  spoil,  spoli-, 
grain,  granu-,  stimulous,  office,  vacant,  circular. 

Ell. — Black,  white,  sharp,  red,  soft,  moist,  less,  sweet,  bright,  strength,  haste, 
glad,  sad,  ripe,  quick,  thick,  fright. 

Fy. — Beauty,  pure,  just,  simple,  glory,  class,  sign,  clear,  clari-,  right,  recti-, 
peace,  pact-,  special,  sped-,  example,  exempli-,  fvnit,  fructi- ;  prophet,  -esy. 

Ish. — Brand,  bland,  public,  famine,  languid. 

Ize,  ise.  (These  generally  signify  to  make,  to  apply,  to  azt  the  part  of.)— 
Legal,  theory,  modern,  moral,  organ,  botany,  tyrant,  melody,  familiar,  character, 
apology  ;  critic. 

Sharp  ending  to  flat  or  rough. — Cloth,  breath,  wreath,  bath,  price,  ad 
vice,  grass,  excuse,  abuse,  grief,  half,  thief. 

Accent  changed. — Abstract,  conflict,  absent,  frequent,  rebel. 

Word  unchanged.  (To  make  that  use  of  which  mankind  generallj 
make;  some  customary  or  habitual  act  or  state;  some  active  relation  to.) — Hoe, 
shoe,  shovel,  plane,  chisel,  hammer,  smoke,  garden,  farm,  weed,  plant,  coop, 
soap,  shear,  gem,  fire,  lance,  and  instrumental  things  generally. 


90  PARTS    OF    SPEECH. 

ADVERBS. 

Ly,  ward  or  wards,  wise  or  ways. 

Form,  spell,  and  define: — 

E«y  5  like,  manner,  quality. — Bitter,  strange,  bright,  plain,  faint,  fierce,  swift, 
playful,  studious,  mere,  scarce,  in,  one,  on-,  spiral,  fearless,  infallible. 

Ward,  ivards ;  direction. — Back,  in,  out,  up,  down,  home,  heaven, 
east,  lee,  wind. 

Wise,  '%"yays  ;  manner,  loay. — ^Length,  cross,  other,  side,  edge ;  straight. 

People  sometimes  commit  errors  in  deriving  words ;  as,  Maintuiiiance,  prevent- 
ative, proposial,  for  maintenance,  preventive,  propasal,  from  maintain,  prevent, 
propose. 

Write  down  all  the  words  you  can  think  of  as  being  derived  from  fobsi. 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

Nearly  all  that  we  shall  say  from  this   page  to   page    258,    belongs  to  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

?  There  are  nine  Parts  of  Speech  ;  JVouns,  Pronouns,  Articles., 
Adjectives,  Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Inter- 
jections. 

To  this  list,  some  grammarians  would  add  the  Participles,  separating  them 
from  the  Verbs  ;  and  some  would  reject  from  it  the  Articles,  classing  them  with 
the  Adjectives.  But  participles  seem  to  have  no  better  claim  to  being  ranked  a 
separate  part  of  speech  than  inflaitives  have ;  and  the  two  articles,  considering 
that  they  can  not  be  always  construed  like  adjectives,  that  they  are  used  at  least 
as  much  as  all  the  adjectives,  that  thev  are  liable  to  as  many  errors,  that  they 
are  recognized  in  other  languages,  and  that  they  merely  aid  nouns  somewhat 
in  the  direction  of  their  distinction  into  proper  and  common,  are  worthy  of  being 
made  a  separate  class.  Language,  as  we  shall  see,  is  a  most  ingenious  instrument ; 
wonderfully  adapted  to  the  myriad-minded  human  race,  and  enabling  them  to  lay 
hold  of  the  world  and  manage  it  intellectually  in  every  conceivable  way.  The 
above  classification  of  words,  however,  exhausts  it,  and  all  its  capabilities.  The 
substantives  and  the  verls  are  the  chief  classes,  and  next  to  them  are  the  adjectives 
and  the  adverbs.  These  four  classes  have,  to  some  extent,  what  are  called  infiec- 
imns  ;  that  is,  they  are  sometimes  changed  in  form  to  express  a  modification  in  the 
idea.  Inflections  abound  most  about  the  core  or  most  ancient  part  of  a  language. 
In  the  course  of  time,  they  are  often  dropped,  or  detach  themselves,  their  meaning 
being  assumed  by  new  and  small  words;  so  that  the  language  becomes  collocative 
rather  than  inflected.  Such  is  the  case  with  our  language.  It  is  properly  the  ofB.ce 
of  Grammar  to  treat  of  the  classes  of  words,  and  of  "their  properties  which  produce 
inflections ;  but,as  the  properties  of  words  must  also  be  regarded  in  the  collocation 
ot  words,  we  usually  treat  of  all  those  properties  necessary  to  be  regarded  in  the 
structure  of  sentenceSj  whether  they  cause  an  entire  change,  a  sligtit  change,  o 
even  no  change  at  all  m  the  form  of  the  word.  Inflections,  especially  ancient  ones, 
consist  sometunes  of  a  vowel  change  in  the  word ;  as,  mouse,  mice  ;  cling,  clung, 
sometimes  of  a  different  ending  ;^  hb,  fox,  foxes  ;  ox,  oxen;  great,  greater:  sometimes 
oi  something  prefixed  ;  as,  beautiful,  more  beautiful ;  write,  may  write,  did  write. 

Words  have  sometimes  been  divided  into  substantives,  attributives,  and  particles. 
Dr.  Becker  divides  all  words  into  notional  words,  and  form-words.  The  former  de- 
note our  notions,  conceptions,  or  rather  somewhat  independent  idefts  ;  and  virtually 
take  up  the  gross  of  the  world.  They  are  thanouns,  the  principal  verbs,  and  most 
of  the  adjectives  and  adverbs.  The  latter  rather  denote  the  ligatures,  substitutes, 
and  appendages, — the  relations  of  our  conceptions  or  notional  ideas, — the  various 
turns  and  windings  of  thought, — and  give  to  language  its  adequate  flexibility  and 
fbrce.  They  are  articles,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  pronouns,  interjections,  auxiliary 
verbs,  and  some  adjectives  and  adverbs.  Briefly,  the  former  comprise  conception- 
words, — thing-words,  quality-words,  and  acl-ion-words  ;  and  the  latter,  substitutes 
and  auxiliary  words  in  general. 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. NOUNS.  91 

5.  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 
Nouns. 

?  50.  A  noBiii  is  a  name. 

Ex. — George,  Martha,  Columbus,  water,  river,  air,  wind,  farm,  farmer,  angel, 
world,  mind,  judgment,  thought,  joy,  fitness,  labor,  laborer,  laboriousness,  Mary- 
Jane  Porter.  "  The  signs  +,  — ,  X ,  and  -+-."  "  The  mwiouns  he  and  wAo."  "  MM 
or  any  other  sAe."  "  To  study  reading,  writing,  and  ciphering.''^  "  To  attack  tlio 
enemy  being  resolved  upon."  *'  I  prefer  green,  to  yellow.''''  "  The  clause,  '  that  man 
is  horn  to  trouble.''  "  "  With  his  '  How  do  you  do  f  and  '  What  can  1  do  for  you  P  " 
"  It  would  be  improper,  for  us  to  do  so."  (What  would  be  improper  ?)  "  That 
all  things  good  and  beautiful  must  pass  away,  is  a  sorrowful  reflection."  (What 
is  a  sorrowful  reflection  ?)  i 

?  Words  from  almost  every  other  part  of  speech,  also  phrases 
and  sentences,  are  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  nouns,  and  should 
then  be  parsed  accordingly. 

?  51.  When  two  or  more  words  form  but  one  name,  or  are  habit- 
ually used  so,  they  may  all  be  parsed  together  as  one  noun. 

Ex. — Henry  Hudson,  Juan  Fernandez,  New  Orleans,  Jefferson  City,  Brigadier 
General  Commandant,  Messrs.  Harper,  Misses  Lewis,  Gen.  George  Washington  ; 
and  perhaps  as  well,  Duke  of  Northumberland,  Charles  II,  Alexander  the  Great. 
'•'■  Ijord  Bacon,  Sir  Walter  Eale'igk,  Br.  Samuel  Clarke,  and  the  Duhe  of  Marl- 
borough, were  not  brought  up  in  public  schools." — Sydney  Smith. 


Classes. 

?  Nouns  are  divided  into  two  classes, — proper  and  common  ;  and 
a  part  of  the  common  nouns  may  be  divided  into  collective  nouns, 
abstract  nouns,  and  material  nouns. 

Proper  means  one^s  own ;  common,  belonging  to  several  or  many ;  colli5Ctite,  gathering  into 
one ;  abstract,  drawn  from  something  else ;  aud  material,  pertaining  to  substance  or  matter. 

?  52.  A  proper  noun  is  an  individual  name. 

Ex. — Mary,  Alexander  Hamilton,  California,  Washington  City,  St.  Petersburg, 
Missouri,  Paradise  Lost ;  the  Missouri ;  the  Iliad ;  the  Alleghanies ;  the  Azores. 
And  according  to  some  authorities,  "The  Eomans ;  the  Cherokees ;  the  Messrs. 
Harris.'''' 

When  we  find  plural  capitalized  names  that  distinguish  groups  in  the  same 
way  as  singular  proper  names  distinguish  individuals,  it  is  perhaps  best  to  parse 
tiiem  always  as  proper  nouns. 

?  Proper  nouns  do  not  admit  of  definition.  When  first  applied  to  objects, 
they  are  generally  given  at  pleasure ;  and  they  serve  to  distinguish  one  indi- 
vidual of  a  kind,  from  others  of  the  same  kind.  Most  of  the  names  on  maps, 
and  the  names  of  persons,  are  proper  nouns.  The  number  of  proper  nouns  is 
almost  unlimited:  that  of  places  alone  is  said  to  exceed  70,000. 

Most  proper  nouns  had  originally  some  meaning,  which,  however,  was  not  de- 
signed to  make  the  word  applicable  to  all  other  sinular  objects,  but  to  distinguish 
and  exclude  the  object  named,  from  all  others.  Examples:  Jerusalem,  habitation 
of  peace ;  Christ,  anointed;  Margaret,  pearl;  Thatcher,  Harper,  Smith,  occupa- 
iion;  White,  Jjong,  8ton.t,  quality ;  Brooks,  Woods,  Hill,  Dale,  locality;  West- 
cott,  Westcote,  Northcutt,  west  cottage,  north  cottage ;  Mississippi,  all  the  rivers  ; 
Minnesota,  sky-tinted  ;  Stienandoah,  daughter  of  the  stars  ;  Winnipiseogee,  smile 
of  the  Great  Sp)irit.  The  meaning  of  most  proper  nouns  is  lost,  or  is  not  taken  into 
consideration  in  applying  them. 

5 


92  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. NOUNS. 

?  53.  Wlien  a  common  noun  denotes  an  object  in  the  sense  ol 
a  proper  noun,  it  becomes  a  proper  noun. 

Ex. — The  Park ;  the  Commons  ;  the  Bhie  Eidge ;  Niagara  Falls  ;  Mammoth 
Cave.  "  Aud  Hope  eachauting  smiled."  These  words  are  viewed  as  merely  de- 
noting particular  objects  rather  than  as  characterizing  them  by  the  ordinary  mean- 
ings of  the  words. 

?  54.  A  coniaBioii  noun  is  a  generic  name. 

Ex. — Man,  boy,  engineer,  hunter,  woman,  horse,  foxes,  hill,  oak,  white-oak, 
apple,  steamboat,  anger,  happiness,  reason,  sun,  moon,  earth,  winter. 

Gommon  nouns  have  meaning,  and  admit  of  definition.  They  distinguish  dif- 
ferent kinds  or  sorts  from  one  another,  by  reference  to  their  nature.  A  common 
noun  is  applied  to  more  objects  than  one  on  account  of  something  in  which  they 
resemble,  and  from  which  the  same  name  is  given  to  them  all.  Those  nouns  in 
a  dictionary  which  are  defined,  are  common  nouns.  Of  these,  our  language  la 
said  to  have  about  30,000, 

?  55.  When  a  proper  noun  assumes  a  meaning,  or  implies  other 
objects  having  the  same  name,  rather  than  similar  objects  having 
different  names,  it  becomes  a  common  noun. 

Ex. — "  He  is  neither  a  Solomon  nor  a  Samson.^''  "  Bolivar  was  the  Washinaton 
of  South  America."  "  No  Alexander  or  GiBsar  ever  did  so."  *'  Some  mute,  inglori- 
ous Milton  here  may  rest."  •'  Alps  on  Alps  [great  diiSculties]  arise."  "  Massa- 
chusetts lias  produced  her  Demosthenes.''''  "  1  saw  tlie  Russians,  and  also  a  Turk 
and  several  Persians,  at  the  Astor  House." 

It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  given  noun  is  proper  or 
common.  The  same  word  is  sometimes  a  proper,  and  sometimes  a  common, 
noun. 

Ex. — Pr  over:  "  Sunday  precedes  Monday.''^  " B  follows  ^."  "  7  is  a  pro- 
noun." "The  planets  are  ^ewyn/,  Venus,  Farth,''^  &c.  Gommon:  "We  have 
preaching  on  every  Sunday.^''  "The  b  is  followed  by  an  a."  "  An  /  or  a  yoM." 
"  The  sun  shines  upon  the  earth.''''  When  a  word  is  used  to  name  itself,  univer- 
sally considered,  Mr.  Goold  Brown  calls  it  a  common  noun,  similar  to  such  words 
as  water  and  virtue  denoting  the  objects  universally  ;  but  when  a  letter  is  used  to 
name  itself,  he  calls  it  a  proper  noun.  The  distinction  is  very  nice, — perhaps  too 
much  so. 

A  proper  noun  can  not,  as  such,  be  "extended  in  its  application  to  any  other 
similar  objects  :  it  is  deaianative  and  exclusive.  But  a  common  noun  is  descriotioe 
and  inclus'ive ;  that  is,  when  we  have  once  named  an  object  by  it,  we  are  ready  to 
give  the  same  name  to  any  other  similar  object  as  soon  as  it  appears  to  us ;  as, 
"  Jupiter  has  four  moons.''''  According  to  Mr.  Mills,  the  former  denotes  ;  the  lat- 
ter, '•'•connotes?''  The  ordinary  household  names  tnat  denote  the  objects  which 
permanently  and  necessarily  make  the  world,  are  considered  common  nouns,  even 
when  the  word  can  denote  but  one  object,  or  the  thing  universally  ;  as.  The  sun, 
the  earth,  the  moon,  the  stars,  the  angels  ;  time,  space,  spring,  wmter,  grass,  vir- 
tue, beauty,  man.  Such  plurals  as  Alps^  Alleahanies,  Andes,  Orkneys,  denoting 
contiguous  parts  rather  than  similar  individuals,  are  undoubtedly  proper  nouns, 
analogous  to  the  common  nouns  ashes,  scissors,  assets,  minutice.  Such  terms  as 
"  the  Goma.nches,  the  Mohawks,  the  Qauls,  the  Belgians,  the  Spaniards,  the  Mexi- 
cans, the  Jews,  the  Israelites,  the  Janizaries,  the  Mamelukes,  the  two  Adamses,  the 
Marslialls  of  Virginia,  the  Muses,  the  Sirens,  the  Sibyls,  the  Graces,  the  Naiads,  are 
considered  proper  nouns  by  some  grammarians ;  and  common  nouns  by  others, 
who  argue  that  whenever  a  proper  noun  is  so  used  as  to  imply  more  objects  than 
one  having  the  same  name,  it  becomes  common. 

?  56.  A  collective  noun  is  a  noun  denoting,  in  the  singular 
form,  more  than  one  object  of  the  same  kind. 

Ex. — Assembly,  swarm,  flock,  crowd,  pair,  family  ;  "a  hundred  head.'''' 


NOUNS   AND    PRONOUNS. NOUNS.  93 

?  57.  But  a  noun  in  the  singular  number,  that  denotes  a  collection  of 
things  resembling  in  their  general  character,  but  differing  in  their  particu- 
lar character,  is  not  a  collective  noun. 

Ex. — Furniture,  jewelry,  machinery,  finery,  baggage,  clothing. 

?  An  ab§tract  noun  denotes  a  quality,  an  action,  or  a  mode 
of  being. 

Abstract  signifies  drawn  from,  and  these  nouns  are  so  termed  because  they  are 
not  the  names  of  certain  substantive  objects  or  things  in  the  world,  but  the  names 
of  certain  notions  which  the  mind  has  drawn  from  them,  or  conceived  concerning 
them.  Thus,  as  we  advance  from  childhood,  in  our  acquaintance  with  the  world, 
we  form  some  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  time,  space,  life,  death,  hope,  virtue,  wis- 
dom, 7).  '  '  " 
sorrow, 


dom,  nuvjnltude,  disease,  war,  peace,  government,  goodness,  youth,  happiness,  beauty, 
sorrow,  mvrJjer,  revenge,  cold,  heat,  whiteness,  softness,  hardness,  brightness,  ditrk- 
ness,  motion,  rest,  flight,^  silence,  existence,  height,  depth,  growth,  custom,  fashion, 


strife,  honor,  glory,  industry,  economy,  inlolcnce,  grandeur,  religion,  knowledge, 
honesty,  deception,  drunkenness, poverty ,  destiny,  ambition,  power.  These  and  such 
nouns  are  abstract. 

t  58.  Most  abstract  nouns  readily  pass  into  concrete  nouns. 

Ex. — "  The  sisters  were  famous  beauties.^^  "•  Pride,  Poverty,  and  'Fashion,  once 
undertook  to  keep  house  together."  Gonorete,  including  the  substance  with  its 
qualities. 

?  59.  A  material  noun  denotes  some  kind  of  matter  or  sub- 
stance. 

Ex. — Bread,  meat,  water,  wood,  stone,  wheat,  flour,  metal,  gold,  cabbage. 

•  Abstract  nouns  and  material  nouns  have  a  universal,  indivisible  ap- 
plication, and  generally  also  special  applications.  Some  writers  consider 
them  abstract  or  material,  only  when  used  in  the  former  sense. 

Ex. — 1.  *'  Beauty  is  attractive  ;"  "  Kain  moistens  the  ground ;"  "  Vice,  fire, 
whiteness."  2.  "  The  beauty  of  the  rose  ;"  "  The  whiteness  of  snow ;"  "  The  rain 
that  fell  last  night ;"  "  A  vice,  a  fire,  vices,  fires." 

?  60.  To  the  classes  of  nouns  already  given,  some  grammarians  add 
verbal  nouns, — participles  and  infinitives  used  in  the  sense  of  nouns,  the 
former  of  which  are  sometimes  called  gerundives  ,or  participial  nouns  ; 
correlative  nouns, — such  as  father  and  son,  husband  and  wife,  master  and 
servant ;  and  diminutive  nouns, — or  such  as  gosling  from  goose,  hillock  from 
hill,  lambkin  from  lamb,  floweret  from  flower. 


The  foregoing  classification  is  in  accordance  with  the  teachiags  of  grammarians  gen- 
erally.   The  two  following  classifications  are  perhaps  more  philosophical. 

1.  Nouns  are  either  concrete  or  abstract. 

CoTicre^  nouns  denote  self-existent  objects,  or  objects  having  attributes;  as, 
God,  earth,  rose. 

Abstract  nouns  denote  attributes;  as,  Goodness,  power,  wisdom,  color,  fra- 
grance, motion,  existence. 

2.  Nouns  may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes:  proper,  abstract,  mali' 
rial,  verbal,  all  of  which  imply  unity  or  oneness,  and  common  including  collective^ 
both  of  which  imply  plurality. 

A  proper  noun  is  such  a  name  of  an  object  or  a  group,  as  is  not  applicable  to 
every  other  similar  object  or  group. 

An  abstract  noun  denotes  an  attribute  universally  considered ;  as,  Truth, 
duration. 

A  material  noun  denotes  a  kind  of  substance  universally  considored;  as, 
Water,  com. 


94  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 

A  verbal  noun  is  a  participle  or  an  infiniiive  used  us  a  noun.  The  abstract 
nouns  include  the  verbal  nouns. 

A  common  noun  is  such  a  name  given  to  one  or  more  objects,  as  is  applicablo 
to  any  others  like  them. 

Collective  nouns  denote  groups  of  similar  objects,  as  other  nouns  denote 
single  objects.     The  common  nouns  include  the  collective  nouns. 

The  common  nouns  come  near  to  the  other  clauses  in  such  exprebsious  as,  "  The  li.mi  is 
courageous;"   "  The  onk  is  an  emblem  of  strength." 

Abstract  or  material  nouns  denoting  objects  personified^  and  commo/i  nouns 
deprived  oi  "connotation,^^  generally  become  proper. 

Proper,  absi7'act,  material,  or  verbal  nouns,  when  modified,  become  common. 
The  modilication  at  once  suggests  plurality  of  objects.  The  modification  may  be 
effected  by  plurahzing  the  noun,  or  by  using  an  article,  adjective,  adverb,  ad- 
junct, or  other  modifying  expression. 

Ex. — "There  were  Macphersons  and  Macdonalds."  "The  hauling  of  the  stones  and 
other  materials,  was  a  heavy  expense,"  "  The  honors  of  the  society."  "  To  think  always 
correctly,  is  a  great  accomplishment."  "  The  Hudson,  the  Pyrenees,"  &c."=The  river  Hud- 
son, or  the  Hudson  river,  &c. ;  or  they  may  be  deemed  exceptions. 


JProsiouns. 

?  61.  A  proitoiiii  is  a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun. 

Ex. — "  The  father  and  his  son  cultivated  the  farm  which  they  had  purchased." 

There  are  three  great  classes  of  names  in  all;  pronouns,  common  nouns,  and  proper 
nouns.  The  pronouns  are  the  fewest  in  number,  only  about  sixty-six,  and  the  most  com- 
prehensive in  application  ;  the  common  noun«  are  the  next  greater  in  number  and  less  com- 
prehensive  in  application  ;  and  the  proper  nouns  are  the  most  numerous  and  least  compre- 
hensive. It  seems  not  improbable  that  pronouns  were  the  first  names,  being  the  simplest 
words  for  denoting,  under  all  circumstances,  whatever  was  about  the  persons  conversing ; 
and  that  they  were  afterwards  adopted  almost  wholly  as  substitutes  for  nouns.  Their  nature 
and  very  Irregular  declension  indicate  great  antiquity,  and  sometimes  pronouns — especially 
the  personal  pronouns-of  the  first  and  second  persons,  the  neuter  pronoun  it,  and  the  relative 
pronoun  lo/iat — are  even  yet  so  used  as  to  refer,  not  so  much  to  the  names  of  objects,  as  to 
the  objects  themselves. 

?  To  avoid  tiresome  and  disagreeable  repetition  of  nouns,  pro- 
nouns are  used  to  represent  persons  or  things  already  mentioned, 
inquired  after,  or  easily  recognized  by  them. 

Ex. — Alexander  told  Elizabeth  that  Elizabeth  might  -write  Elizabeth's  name 
in  Elizabeth's  book  with  Alexander's  pen="  Alexander  told  Elizabeth  that  sh^, 
might  write  her  name  in  her  book  with  his  pen."  "  Who  was  it  /"  "  ^  is  a  fine 
scholar." 

?  62.  The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  substantive  in 
reference  to  which  the  pronoun  is  used.  It  usually  precedes  the 
pronoun,  but  sometimes  follows  it. 

Ex. — "John  obeys  his  instructor."     Here  John  is  the  antecedent  ofJiis. 
"  Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  ITS  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  T' — Grai/. 

?  63.  The  antecedent  may  be  a  different  pronoun,  a  phrase,  or  a 
clause,  as  well  as  a  noun. 

Ex. — "  He  WHO  is  well,  undervalues  health."  "  Who  that  is  strictly  honest, 
would  flatter  ?"  "  1  wished  to  return,  but  it  was  impossible."  "  It  is  the  novelty 
and  delicacy  of  the  design,  that  makes  the  picture  so  beautiful."  "  It  is  danger- 
ous to  wake  a  sleeping  lion.''''    "  He  sold  his  farm,  and  now  he  regrets  rr." 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS.  95 

?  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  when  a  pronoun  has  a  modifieJ 

antecedent,  it  represents  it  with  all  its  modifications. 

Ex. — "  The  largest  tree  of  the  grove  spread  its  shade  over  us."  Here  its  repre- 
sents not  tree  merely,  but  l^he  largest  tree  of  the  grove. 

"When  a  pronoun  is  used,  we  may  nearly  always  pnt  some  noun  in  its  place.  It  is  not, 
however,  custoniary  to  regard  this  word  as  its  antecedent,  but  the  corresponding  word  else- 
where used,  which  it  represents.  To  a  pronoun  having  an  antecedent,  Rule  9th,  of  page 
46lh,  should  be  applied  in  parsing.  When  a  pronoun  is  applied  directly  to  tlie  object  itself  ; 
when  the  speaker  can  not  be  thought  to  have  the  supposed  antecedent  in  his  mind  ;  and  when 
the  supposed  antecedent  does  not  firxt  present,  in  the  order  of  the  sense,  the  object  meant, — 
I  doubt  the  necessity  or  even  the  propriety  of  applying  Rule  9th.  Hence  the  Rule  may  gen- 
erally be  dispensed  with,  in  parsing  inteiTogatives,  pronominals,  responsives.  and  frequently, 
pergonal  pronouns  and  relative  pronouns.  Even  in  such  sentences  as,  "  Who  knows  himself 
H  braggart,  let  him  fear  this  ;"  "  Whomsoever  you  can  not  manage,  hhn  you  need  not  send  ;" 
"  Whatever  you  do,  do  it  well," — him  and  it  ai-e  probably  not  antecedents:  the  relatives  do 
not  refer  to  them ;  but  more  directly,  or  as  directly  as  they,  to  the  objects  themselves. 


?  Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  chief  classes  ;  personal^  relative^ 
and  interrogative. 

i  64.  The  personal  pronouns  are  those  whose  chief  use  is,  to 
distinguish  the  different  grammatical  persons. 

?  G5.  They  are  /,  thou  or  yow,  he^  she,  and  ^7,  with  their  declined 
forms,  and  their  compounds.       See  p.  8. 

?  66.  You^  your^  yours^  yourself,  are  now  preferred,  in  familiar  or 
popular  discourse,  to  the  otlier  forms. 

?  67.  Thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  thyself,  and  ye,  may  rather  be  regarded  as 
antiquated  forms.  Tliey  generally  have  an  antique,  scriptural,  or  poetic 
air.  They  are  much  used  in  the  Bible,  and  frequently  in  other  sacred 
writings  and  in  poetry.  They  are  also  habitually  used  by  the  Friends,  or 
Quakers.  They  seem,  too,  at  one  time,  to  have  occasionally  carried  with 
them  something  of  a  blunt  or  insulting  air;  of  which  use,  traces  are  still 
visible  in  our  hterature. 

Ex.—"  Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth." — Bible.  "  TTiou  Almighty  Euler,  hal- 
lowed be  thy  name." — Book  of  Prayers.  "  Ye  angels  and  ministers  of  grace,  de- 
fend us  !" — Shak.  "  Thy  words  had  such  a  melting  flow."  "  Ye  winds,  ye  waves, 
ye  elements!" — Byron.  "All  that  Lord  Cobham  did,  was  at  thy  instigation, 
thou,  viper!  for  I  thou  thee,  thou  traitor!" — Lord  Coke  :  Trial  of  Essex. 
"  I  have  no  words,  my  voice  is  in  my  sword ; 
Thou  bloodier  villain  than  terms  can  let  thee  out !" — Shakespeare. 

?  68.  He,  she,  and  they,  sometimes  refer  to  any  one  or  any  ones  of  a 
certain  class  of  persons. 

Ex. — "  He  who  trifles  away  his  life,  will  never  be  rich  in  honors."  "  She  who 
knows  merely  how  to  dress,  dance,  and  flirt,  will  never  make  a  good  wife."  ^'■They 
who  deserve  most  blame,  are  apt  to  blame  first." 

?  69.  The  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  what  the  speaker 
can  not  well  designate  in  any  other  way,  or  what  he  deems  sufficiently 
obvious  when  thus  mentioned ;  and  often  to  introduce  at  once  what  is 
more  definitely  denoted  by  some  following  word  or  words. 

Ex.—"  It  rains."  "  It  thunders."  "  It  was  moonlight  on  the  Persian  sea." 
*'  Who  is  itf     "  Who  is  it  that  calls  the  dead  ?"     "  It  ran  into  a  hollow  tree,  but 


W  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 

I  do  not  know  what  it  was."  "  Lo !  there  it  comes !" — Shakespeare's  Eandet. 
*'  How  goes  it  with  you?"  "/<{  is  not  well  with  me  to-day."  "Come  and  trip  it 
as  you  go."  "  It  is  he."  "  It  is  I."  "  It  was  you."  "  It  was  they.' '  ''It  is  idle- 
ness that  leads  to  vice."  "  It  is  now  well  known  that  the  earth  is  round."  "  It 
is  mean  to  take  advantage  of  another's  distress."  The  following  remark  tells  the 
truth  in  many  instances  :  "  It  denotes  the  state  or  condition  of  things." 

?  70.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  used  to  denote  persons 
or  things  as  emphatically  distinguished  from  others. 

Ex. — "  I  will  go  myself  •  you  may  stay."     "  I  spoke  with  the  man  Jiimselfy 
"  I  once  felt  a  little  inclined  to  marry  her  myself.'''' 
"  Hereditary  bondsmen  !  know  ye  not, 
Who  would  be  free,  themselves  must  strike  the  blow  ?" — Campbell. 

?  71.  These  pronouns  are  further  used,  when  that  which  is  denoted  by 
the  subject  of  the  verb,  is  also  that  on  which  the  act  or  state  terminates. 

Ex. — "  They  drew  themselves  up  by  ropes."     "  She  saw  herself  in  the  glass.* 
*♦  He  killed  himself.''''     "  Said  1  to  myself,  '  1  am  myself  again.'  " 


?  72.  A  relative  pronoun  makes  its  clause  dependent  on  an- 
other clause,  or  on  a  preceding  word. 

Ex. — "  There  is  the  man  ]  whom  you  saw."  "  Nobody  knows  |  who  invented 
the  letters."  "  I  have  2/;Aa^  you  need."  "  I  can  not  tell  w^a^  ails  him."  "Spirit 
that  breathest  through  my  lattice,  thou,"  &c. — Bryant.  Here,  "whom  you  saw,*' 
for  instance,  can  not  stand  by  itself,  and  make  seiise. 

?  73.  The  relative  pronoun  stands  at  or  near  the  head  of  its 
clause,  and  the  clause  itself  generally  performs  the  office  of  an  ad- 
jective or  of  a  substantive. 

Ex. — "  The  boy  who  studies,  will  learn"=-The  stud'ious  boy  will  learn.  "  I  know 
who  he  is.''''  (Know  what  ?)  "  I  will  do  what  I  promised  to  do"="I  will  do  the  thing 
which  I  promised  to  do. 

?  The  relative  pi-onouns  are  who,  which,  what,  that,  and  as,  with 
their  declined  forms  and  their  compounds.       See  p.  8. 

?  74.  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  and  to  other  objects  when  regarded 
as  persons. 

Ex. — "  The  MAX  who  feels  truly  noble,  will  become  so."  "  And  Avarice,  who 
sold  himself  to  hell." — Spenser.  "  Now  a  faint  tick  was  heard  below,  from  the 
Pendulum,  who  thus  spoke." — Jane  Taxjlor. 

"  '  Dear  Madam,  I  pray,'  quoth  a  Maorpie  one  day. 

To  a  Monkey,  who  happened  to  come  in  her  way." — Sargenfs  Speaker. 

?  75.  Which  is  applied  to  things,  or  to  what  we  regard  so,  to  brute  ani- 
mals, to  groups  of  persons  denoted  by  collective  nouns  when  all  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  collection  are  vie»ved  together  as  one  thing;  and  frequently 
to  children. 

Ex. — "The  ROSE  which  f  "The  ^xku  which  f  "  The  elephant  wAicA  ;"  "The 
"WORLD  which  f  "The  army  which.'''  "  He  was  the  soul  which  animated  the  party," 
"The  nations  whicli  encompass  the  Mediterranean."  "Congress,  wh't^h  is  a  body 
of  wise  men."     "  The  oiiilu  wh'ich  we  met." 

?  76.  Which  is  used  in  connection  with  some  word  denoting  the  object 
referred  to,  or  when  the  object  is  present,  or  has  been  already  mentioned 
or  brought  to  mind. 

Ex. — "  The  misfortunes  which  cruf  bed  him."  "  I  can  not  tell  which  is  which.''^ 
"  1  do  not  know  which  you  mean." 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS.  97 

?  77.  What  is  applied  to  things,  and  sometimes  to  other  objects  when 
regarded  as  things. 

Ex.—"  I  will  take  what  you  send."  *'  There  is  in  ray  carriage  lohat  has  liib, 
soul,  and  beauty." 

?  78.  What  is  used  when  the  objects  spoken  of  may  be  represented 
by  the  indefinite  term  thing  or  things  and  which.  It  represents  them  both, 
and  does  not  have,  in  modern  usage,  the  word  thing  or  things  understood 
before  it.       See  Language,  p.  59. 

?  79.  That  is  used  in  preference  to  who  or  which  when  both  persons 
and  other  objects  are  referred  to ;  nearly  always  when  the  relative  clause 
is  restrictive — especially  after  the  superlative  degree,  after  who,  some,  very, 
no,  all,  any,  each,  every,  and  frequently  after  the  personal  pronouns,  or 
after  predicate-nominatives  referring  to  it;  and  generally  where  who  or 
which  would  seem  less  proper,  or  would  not  sound  so  well. 

Ex. — "  The  SHIP  and  passengebs  that  were  lost  at  sea."  "  In  woeds  tJiat  breathe, 
and  THOUGHTS  that  burn."  "  This  is  the  hardest  lesson  that  we  have  yet  had." 
"  Who  that  respects  himself,  would  tell  a  lie  '^"  "  The  same  star  that  we  saw  last 
night."  "No  MAN  that  knows  him,  would  credit  him."  "And  all  that  wealth 
or  beauty  ever  gave."  "  It  is  selfishuess  and  vanity,  that  makes  a  woman  a  coquet." 

?  80.  The  relative  pronoun  or  relative  clause  is  restrictive,  when 
it  makes  the  word  to  which  it  refers  denote  only  such  objects  as  are 
described  by  the  relative  clause  :  in  the  restrictive  sense,  it  modifies 
an  idea ;  in  the  other,  it  adds  an  idea. 

Ex. — "Eiches  that  are  ill  gotten,  are  seldom  enjoyed."  Of  course  not  all 
riches.  "Read  thy  doom  in  the  flowers,  ^^>A^tf7^  fade  and  die."  Not  restrictive. 
"  He  was  a  man  whom  nothing  could  turn  aside  from  the  path  which  duty  pointed 
out."  Restrictive.  "  God  must  be  conscious  of  every  motion  that  arises  in  the 
material  universe,  which  he  thus  essentially  pervades."  The  first  relative  is  re- 
strictive ;  the  other  is  not.  "  They  enacted  guou  i^vws  as  were  needed."  "  Catch 
what  comes." 

It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  whether  that  should  be  preferred  to  who  or 
which.  Sometimes  either  may  be  used  with  equal  propriety.  When  the  ante- 
cedent is  so  fixed  or  definite  by  itself,  or  so  limited  by  other  definite  words, — such 
as  the,  that,  those, — that  the  relative  clause  can  not  vary  its  meaning,  wlio  or  which 
may  be  allowable  or  even  preferable ;  when  the  antecedent  is  an  indefinite  term, 
or  is  made  indefinite  by  such  modifying  words  as  a,  some,  any,  every,  &c.,  that 
may  be  preferable,  or  even  necessary  to  make  the  meaning  sufficiently  definite,  or 
to  show  precisely  what  objects  are  meant. 

"  He  is  engaged  in  speculations  tohich  are  very  profitable,"  might  suggest  that  all  specu- 
lations are  very  profitable :  say,  "in  speculations  that.'''  "He  is  a  man  who  cheats  every 
body,"  may  be  understood  to  mean,  that  rascality  is  the  essential  quality  of  a  man  or  of  a 
gentleman:  say,  "a  man  tfiat."  "It  is  the  thought  or  sentiment  which  lies  under  the 
figured  expression,  that  gives  it  its  merit."  Here  no  change  could  be  made  without  injuring 
the  sentence :  which  and  that,  as  here  used,  (though  both  restrictive,)  well  show  the  sub- 
ordinate character  of  the  middle  clause,  and  the  restrictive  character  of  the  last  clause.  "  I 
don't  doubt  you'll  like  my  friend,  whom  I  have  sent  with  a  most  trusty  and  faithful  serv- 
ant, w?iO  deserves  your  friendship  and  favor."  This  sentence  is  not  so  clear  as  it  might  be : 
had  the  author  said,  '•'■and  who  deserves,"  the  reference  would  have  been  clearly  to 
"frieud;"  had  he  said,  "  tAaf  deserves,"  to  "  servant." 

?  81.  That  is  often  used  as  an  adjective  or  as  a  conjunction ;  so  that  yon 
must  regard  it  a  pronoun,  only  when  who  or  wliich  can  be  put  for  it  without 
destroying  the  sense. 

Ex.—-"  Thatio  man  said  that^s  he  knows  your  father."  "  The  ablest  man  that 
[who]  spoke  on  the  subject."    "  The  same  horse  tluit  [which]  I  rode." 


98  N0U1?S    AND    PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 

?  82.  As  is  generally  a  relative  pronoun,  when  it  is  used  after  such, 
many,  or  same. 

Ex, — "He  pursued  such  a  course  as  ruined  him."  "He  deceived  as  many  as 
trusted  him."     "  The  daughter  has  the  same  inclinations  as  the  mother." 

As,  at  bottom,  is  perhaps  a  conjunction;  but  since  a  relative  must  then  be  always  sup- 
plied to  complete  the  sense  of  the  following  clause,  it  may  as  well  be  parsed  as  a  relative. 
^oule  grammarians  maintain  that  it  is  never  a  relative ,  others,  that  it  is  always  a  relative 
after  such,  many,  or  same.  The  truth  lies  perhaps  between  the  two  extremes.  As  is  used 
la  two  different  senses.  It  may  recall  the  identical  objects  mentioned  before,  or  it  may  pre-  . 
sent  only  similar  objects.  "When,  by  supplying  the  necessary  words,  the  meaning  would  be 
changed,  as  should  certainly  be  parsed  as  a  relative.  "  I  bought,  at  the  auction,  such  mules 
OS  were  sold — as  many  mules  as  were  sold"  =  I  bought  the  mules  that  were  sold — all  the 
mules  Wia^  were  sol  J ;  but,  "I  bouglit,  at  the  auction,  such  mules  as  the  mules  were  that 
were  sold — as  mauy  mules  as  the  mules  were  that  were  sold,"  suggests  rather  that  there 
were  two  distinct  parcels  of  mules,  or  that  I  bought  other  mules  than  those  which  were  sold 
at  the  auction.  Observe  also,  that,  above,  some  other  relative  can  be  substituted  for  as,  es- 
pecially by  changing  the  preceding  such  or  as  mawj  into  the,  those,  or  all.  So,  "  He  took  as 
viaay  as  ho  could  get"  =  He  took  all  that  he  could  get.  "  He  took  such  apples  as  pleased 
him."  "She  played  such  tunes  as  were  called  for."  "He  was  the  father  of  all  such  as 
play  on  the  harp  and  organ."  "  As  many  as  came, were  baptized."  "I  will  come  at  such  an 
hour  as  I  can  spare."  But  when  1  say,  "I  bought  such  mules  as  you  have  for  sale;"  "  We 
do  not  want  such  men  as  he  is  ;"  as  should  perhaps  be  considered  a  conjunction.  In  the  last 
example,  if  parsed  as  a  relative,  it  can  not  agree,  as  a  predicate-nominative,  with  Ac ;  we  can 
not  say,  "  He  is  such  men."  Locke,  however,  has  the  following  sentence:  "  There  be  some 
■inen  loliom  you  would  rather  have  your  son  to  be,  with  five  hundred  pounds  a  year,  tlian 
some  other  with  five  thousand  pounds."  Whom,  is  here  used  very  much  like  as  in  the  previ- 
ous example. — This  latter  sense  of  as  is  also  analogous  to  that  of  than  in  such  sentences  as, 
"  I  have  more  money  than  you  have  ;"  "  He  wanted  more  than  he  got."  In  these  sentences, 
tlian  should  never  be  parsed  as  a  relaiive,  for  it  never  expresses,  when  so  used,  the  identitij 
Bometimes  denoted  by  as.  Most  teachers,  to  avoid  difficult  distinctions,  deem  it  best  to  parso 
as,  construed  after  such,  m,any,  or  same,  always  as  a  relative  pronoun. 

?  83.  The  compound  relative  pronouns  are  preferred  to  the  simple 
ones,  when  the  speaker  means  to  indicate  more  forcibly  that  he  refers  to 
an  object  considered  as  general  or  undetermined.  Sometimes  they  are 
almost  equivalent  to  the  simple  pronouns. 

Ex. — "  Whoever  [any  person  that]  despises  the  lowly,  knows  not  the  fickleness 
of  fortune"=Who  despises  the  lowly,  etc.  "Take  whlohever  [any  one  that]  you 
like."  "  I'll  do  whatever  [any  or  every  thing  that]  is  right."  "  Who  steals  my 
purse,  steals  trash." 

These  pronouns  are  parsed  like  the  corresponding  simple  pronouns ;  but,  as 
th-ey  never  refer  to  a  definite  or  particular  object,  they  have  rarely  or  never  an 
expressed  antecedent.  The  indefinite  ever  or  soever  partly  represents  the  ante- 
cedent, by  being  a  sort  of  substitute  for  the  indefinite  adjective  which  must  pre- 
cede the  antecedent ;  hence  when  the  antecedent  is  expressed  or  supplied,  the 
ever  or  soever  must  generally  be  dropped ;  as,  "  Whoever  cares  not  for  others,  should 
not  expect  their  favor"==.4/iy  person  who  care?  not  for  others,  should  not  expect 
their  favor.  Ever,  from  denoting  time  indefinitely,  was  naturally  extended  to 
place  and  time,  and  thence  of  course  to  objects. 


]  84.  An  iaitcrrogiitive  pronoun  is  used  to  ask  a  question. 
Ex.—"  Who  came  with  you!"     "  What  do  you  want  ?"     "  Which  is  yours  ?" 

?  The  interrogative  pronouns  are  ivho,  which,  what,  and  their 
declined  forms. 

?  Each  of  them  may  be  applied  to  any  person  or  thing  what- 
soever ;  except  who,  which  is  applicable  to  persons  only. 

?  85.   Who  inquires  for  the  name    or   some   other  appellation;    and 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS.  99 

when  the  name  is  in  the;  quo-'.i.i:',  it  inquires  for  the  character  or  some 
description  of  the  perso*. 

Ex. — '*  PF,^o  wrote  the  book  ?"  "  Whose  glory  did  he  emulate?"  "  Whom  do 
you  take  me  to  be?"    "  W/io  was  Blennerhasset  ?" 

.  86.  Which  supposes  the  name  known,  or  disregards  it,  but  seeks 
further  to  distinguish  a  certain  individual  from  others. 

Ex. — "  Which  of  you  will  go  with  me  ?"  "  Which  is  the  Governor  ?"  "  Which 
is  the  ti<jre33?  'Which  must  I  take?  Which  is  your  daujjhter?"  "  Which  is 
which  ?" 

?  87.  What  goes  still  further,  and  inquires  into  the  character  or  occu- 
pation. 

Ex.—"  What  is  that  fellow  ?" 

Briefly,  who  seeks  to  designate;  which,  to  distinguish;  and  what, 
to  describe. 

Ex.—"  Wh/)  is  that  gentleman? — Mr.  Everett. —  Which  one  ? — Edward  Everett. — 
JVhat  is  he  ? — An  eminent  scholar  and  statesman." 

Sometimes  either- who  or  what  may  be  used  in  speaking  of  persons  :  but  in  most 
such  instances,  who  is  perhaps  a  little  more  respectful. 

88.  When  who,  which,  or  what,  occurs  in  a  claugo  that  is  in  answer  or 
apparently  in  answer  to  the  same  clause  used  interrogatively,  it  is  neither  an 
interrogative  pronoun,  nor  a  relative  pronoun  in  the  sense  of  other  relative  pro- 
nouns :  but,  according  to  some  grammarians,  it  is  a  responsive  or  an  indefinite 
pronoun.  It  may,  however,  be  considered  a  relative  pronoun ;  for  it  makes  its 
clause  dependent  as  the  common  relatives  do. 

Ex. — Interrogative:  "  TF/jo  broke  the  window  ?"  Responsive  rela- 
tive: "  I  do  not  know  who  broke  it." — "  Do  you  know  who  broke  it  ?" 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  the  different  uses  of  who,  which,  and  what  ;— 

luterrogativs.  Responsive  Relative.  Common  Relative. 

Wlu>  can.e?  Lfyr?no7^:tct;"S  \  '  ^«  -*  '^-^  *^«  --  «"^  — 

Which  is  the  lesson?  I  remember to/iic/i  is  the  lesson.  I  remember  the  lesson  lohich  I  recited. 

Tr/ia^  did  he  buy?       I  know  to/ia<  he  bought.  I  admire  wAa<  he  bought. 

ip;.«*  j„  t—.fT,  9  Teach  me  what  is  truth.  )  rp r, .„i,„*  ,-„  + 

WJuit  IS  truth  ?  ^^j^^.  T^^^i^  ^^^  ^^f^  tj.^tj^  ig_  I  Teach  me  what  is  true. 

Hence,  when  these  words  are  interrogative  pronouns,  they  must  stand  at  or 
near  the  beginning  of  the  question  ;  when  responsive  relative  pronouns,  the  verb  or 
preposition  (usually  preceding)  governs  the  entire  clause,  or  depends  on  it ;  and 
when  common  relative  pronouns,  it  relates  only  to  what  is  denoted  by  them. 


?  89.  The  chief  other  words  used  occasionally  as  pronouns,  are 
orie,  oneself,  none,  other,  another,  each  other,  one  another,  and  tkat^ 
with  their  declined  forms. 

Ex. — "  Some  one  has  said,  'A  blush  is  the  color  of  virtue.'  "  "  The  best  ones.^^ 
*'  Several  others.''''  ^'■One  should  not  think  too  highly  of  oneself.''^  "  The  old  bird 
feeds  her  young  ones^  "  The  brother  and  sister  love  each  other y  "  The  girls 
love  one  another.''''  "  Wives  and  husbands  are,  indeed,  incessantly  complaining  of 
each  other.'''' — Johnson.  "Put  the  dozen  cups  within  one  another.''''  '■'■None  [no 
jiersons]  are  completely  happy."  "  The  age  of  modest,  industrious,  and  meritori- 
ous yeomanry  is  gone;  ana  that  [the  age]  of  pining,  office-seeking  aristocracy  ia 
at  hand." 

Dr.  Whately  writes  "oneseZ/"  in  a  form  analogous  to  herae\f,  himael/,  and  better,  I 
think,  than  "one's  ael/.'" 

5* 


100  NOUNS  aNO  PKONOUNS. — PRONOUNS. 

?  90.  One  often  refers  to  mankind  indefinitely,  or  to  a  class  of  objects 
already  brought  to  mind,  or  c/ovious  from  the  modifying  word  or  words. 

•  91.  Each  other  and  one  another  are  often  called  reciprocal  lironouns. 
They  have  a  reflexive  sense,  and  represent  the  I'eiation  between  any  two 
of  the  objects  as  being  that  between  any  and  every  other  two  of  the  en- 
tire series. 

Some  grammarians,  by  supplying  words,  parse  each  of  the  foregoing  terms  as 
two  words,  the  first  one  in  apposition  with  the  whole  group,  and  the  other  as  an 
objective  ;  as,  "The  two  girls  love  each  [one^  loves  the]  other'''  [one''].  But  "  The 
bad  boys  threw  stones  at  one  another,''''  may  mean,  each  one  at  the  others,  as  well  as, 
each  one  at  the  other  one.  The  Greek  language  ejcpresses  one  another  by  one  word, 
and  the  German  also  by  one  inseparable,  word  that  is  precisely  analogous  to  our 
phrase. 

"  "Wie  zwei  Flammen  sich  ergreifen,  wie 

Harfentone  in  einander  spielen." — Schiller. 
Here  einander  could  not  be  parsed  separately  ;  for  ein  in  ander  would  be  a  solecism. 

There  are  several  other  words,  of  the  pronominal  or  definitive  adjectives,  which 
are  also  frequently  parsed  as  pronouns,  especially  when  they  refer  distributively  or 
emphatically  to  what  has  been  already  introduced.  "They  fled;  some  to  the 
woods,  and  some  to  the  r'ver."  "  They  had  two  horses  each.''''  "  Peace,  order, 
and  justice,  were  all  destroyed."  "  I  like  neither.''''  It  will  be  best  to  consider 
such  words  pronouns,  when  they  can  not  be  so  well  disposed  of  in  any  other  way  : 
but  they  are  frequently  parsed  as  pronouns  or  adverbs  when  they  might  as  well 
or  better  be  parsed  as  adjectives. 

The  last  group  of  pronouns  which  we  have  considered,  do  not  fall  within  any 
one  of  our  three  great  classes  of  pronouns.  If  deemed  necessary,  they  may  be 
called  reciprocal,  indefinite,  distributive,  or  demonstrative  pronouns,  according  to 
their  sense. 


?  92.  In  the  place  of  a  pronoun,  we  may  frequently  put  a  noun 

with  the  same  pronoun,  or  with  a  word  of  the  same  class  or  nature, 

placed  as  an  adjective  before  the  noun. 

Ex. — "  TTAo  is  he ?"=  JFAfl^i  person  is  he?  "Show  me  what  it  i8"=Show  me 
what  thing  it  is.  "  Which  of  the  horses  will  you  take  ?" —  Which  horse  will  you 
take?  "I  will  ride  one  horse  to  drive  the  others;''  i.  e.,  the  other  horses.  "The 
pleasures  of  vice  are  momentary;  those  of  virtue,  everlasting"=The  pleasures  of 
vice  are  momentary;  the  pleasures  of  virtue,  everlasting. 

?  93.  The  pronoun  is  sometimes  omitted. 

Ex. — "'Tis  Heaven  [that]  has  brought  me  to  the  state  {whichl  you  see." 
*'  There  is  the  man  [whom]  I  saw."     \_Thou\  "  Thyself  shalt  see  the  act.'' 

?  94.  An  antecedent  may  be  supplied,  when  it  is  needed  for  the 
sake  of  other  words,  or  even  when  it  can  be  easily  supplied,  and 
without  producing  harshness. 

Ex. — "  Give  it  to  whoever  [any  one  that]  needs  it ;"  or,  "Give  it  to  [any  person] 
who  (ever)  needs  it."  "Let  such  [persons]  as  hear,  take  heed."  [lie]  "Who  livea 
to  fancy,  never  can  be  rich." 


JPfoperties. 

I'  Nouns    and    Pronouns    have  genders,    persons   nnni" 
l>er§,  and  ca§es. 

?  95.  Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents,  in  gender^  person^ 
and  number. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. GENDERS.  101 

Genders. 

?  The  gender  of  a  word  is  its  meaning  in  regard  to  sex. 

?  There  are  four  genders  ;  the  masculine,  the  feminine,  the  com- 
mon, and  the  neuter. 

Genders  meant  originally  kind^  or  fiorts  ;  thence,  Mndx  in  reference  to  sex  ;  and  thence,the  senat 
and  farm  of  words  as  adapted  to  distinguish  objects  in  regard  to  sex. 

?  96.  The  masciilisie  gender  denotes  males. 

Ex. — Uncle,  father,  son,  governor,  Mr.  Kobertson,  executor,  dog,  he,  himself. 

?  97.  The  fefitiiiiine  gender  denotes  females. 

Ex. — Aunt,  mother,  daughter,  girl,  hen,  goose,  heroine,  seamstress,  she,  herself. 

?  98.  Tlie  coinfinoii  gender  denotes  either  males  or  females, 
or  both. 

Ex. — Persons,  parents,  children,  cat,  insects,  I,  you,  they,  who. 

?  99.  The  neuter  gender  denotes  neither  males  nor  females. 

Ex, — Tree,  house,  city,  heaven,  beauty,  body,  size,  manhood,  soul,  it,  what. 
The  neuter  gender  pertains  chiefly  to  things,  and  to  qualities  or  other  attributes. 

Gommon  gender  of  course  does  not  imply  common  sex,  but  is  the  character- 
istic of  those  substantives  which  denote  living  beings,  without  showing  in  them- 
selves whether  males  or  females  are  meant,  being  equally  applicable  to  both. 
The  sex  may,  however,  be  sometimes  ascertained  from  some  other  word  in  the 
sentence ;  and  then  the  words  should  be  parsed  accordingly. 

Ex. — "  The  child  and  his  mother  were  in  good  health."  Here  cMld  is  mascu- 
line, as  shown  by  his. 

Some  grammarians  reject  the  "  common  gender,"  and  would  parse  such  words  as  parents  and 
friends,  as  "of  the  masculine  and  feminine  gender,"  "of  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender," 
''of  the  masculine  gender,"  or  "of  the  feminine  gender,"  according  to  the  sense.  I  see  no  valid 
objection  to  the  term  common  gender,  provided  gender  and  «ex  be  not,  as  they  frequently  are.  con- 
founded. They  are  distinct  in  meaning :  gender  is  a  property  belonging  to  words  only ;  and  sex, 
to  qt^ecta. 

?  100.  Nouns  strictly  applicable  to  males  only,  or  to  females  only, 
are  sometimes  used  to  denote  both.  This  usually  occurs  when  the 
speaker  aims  at  brevity  of  speech,  and  when  the  sex  is  not  impor- 
tant to  his  design.     The  masculine  term  is  generally  preferred. 

Ex. — '■'■Horses  axQ  fond  of  green  pastures;"  i.e.,  horses,  &nA  mares  too.  "The 
e/cjf's  are  scattered  over  the  whole  world."  ^'■Ilelrs  are  often  disappointed."  "I 
saw  geese  and  ducks  in  the  pond,"  "  The  poets  of  England,"  But  in  connection 
with  a  proper  name,  only  the  appropriate  term  will  harmonize  in  sense ;  as,  "  The 
poet  Homer;"  "  The  poetess  Sappho." 

?  101.  Sometimes  animals  are  regarded  as  male  or  female,  not 
from  their  sex,  but  from  their  general  character — from  having  mas- 
culine or  feminine  qualities. 

Ex.— "  The  ZioTi  meets  Ais  foe  boldly."  "  The /«c  made  his  escape,"  "The 
npider  weaves  Aer  web."  "  The  Jove  smooths  her  feathers."  "The  timid  hare 
leaps  from  Aer  covert."  " Every  Jee  minds  her  own  business." — Addison.  "The 
ant  is  a  very  cleanly  insect,  and  throws  out  of  her  nest  all  the  remains  of  the  corn 
on  which  *Ae  feeds." — Id.  Had  these  bees  and  ants  appeared  to  Addison  as  un- 
interesting, ordinary  things,  he  would  probably  have  used  "  it"  and  "its;"  but 
their  attractive,  ami-able,  and  almost  rational  qualities  made  the  adoption  of  the 
femine  gender  peculiarly  elegant. 


102 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. GENDERS. 


?  102.  So,  inanimate  objects  are  sometimes  regarded  by  the 
imagmation  as  living  beings,  and  have  then  a  suitable  sex  ascribed 
to  them.  The  objects,  in  such  cases,  are  said  to  be  personified^  tliat 
is,  endowed  with  personal  qualities ;  and  the  nouns  denoting  such 
objects,  may  be  parsed  as  masculine  or  feminine  by  personification. 

Ex. — "  The  sun  rose,  and  filled  the  earth  with  Ms  glory."  "  The  moon  took  her 
station  still  higher,  and  looked  brighter  than  before."  "  The  boat  has  lost  lier 
rudder."  "There  lay  the  city  before  us,  in  all  Jier  beauty."  "Behold  the  Aforn 
in  amber  clouds  arise  /  see,  with  her  rosy  hands  she  paints  the  skies." — Lee. 
"  Then  Anger  rushed — his  eyes  on  fire." — GolUns.      See  his  Ode  on  the  Passions. 

?  103.  A  collective  noun,  when  used  in  the  plural  form,  or  when 

it  represents  the  collection  as  an  aggregate  or  a  whole,  is  of  the 

neuter  gender;  when  used  otherwise,  its  gender  corresponds  with  the 

sex  of  the  individuals  composing  the  collection. 

Ex. — "  Six /amities  settled  on  this  river."  "  Every  ^e«,em^ion.  has  its  peculiar 
ities."     "  The  audience  were  much  pleased." 

104  Some  words  may  vary  much  in  gender,  according  to  the  very  differ- 
ent meanings  which  they  have. 

Ex. — "  A  game  at  ball ;"  "  I  saw  no  game  in  my  hunt."  "  A  brilliant  geniits  ;" 
"  He  has  genius.''''     "  The  same  man  tlhat — woman  that — person  that — apple  that.'''' 

?  The  English  language  has  three  methods  of  distinguishing 
the  two  sexes. 


?  105. 

Bachelor, 

Beau, 
Boy, 

Boar, 

Bridegroom, 

Brother, 

Bull, 

Bullock, 

Cock,       I 

Booster,  ) 

Colt, 

Dog 

Drake, 

Earl, 

Father, 

Eriar, 


a.  By  different  words. 


maid,       \ 

spinster. 

belle. 

girl. 

sow. 

bride. 

sister. 

cow. 

heifer. 

hen. 

filly. 

bitch. 

duck. 

countess. 

mother. 

nun. 


Gander, 

Gentleman, 

Hart, 

Horse, 

Husband, 

King, 

Lad, 

Lord, 

Male, 

Man, 

Master, 

Master, 

Mr., 

Milter, 

Monk, 

Monsieur, 

Monsieur, 


goose. 

lady. 

roe. 

mare. 

wife. 

queen. 

lass. 

lady. 

female. 

woman. 

mistress. 

miss. 

Mrs. 

spawner. 

nun. 

mademoiselle. 

madame. 


Nephew, 

Fapa, 

Kake, 

Earn, 

Sire, 


niece. 

mamma. 

jilt. 

ewe. 

madam.e. 


Sire  (ahorse),  dam. 


Sir, 

Sloven, 

Son, 

Stag, 

Steer, 

Swain, 

Uncle, 

Wizard, 


madam. 

slut. 

daughter. 

hind. 

heifer. 

nymph. 

aunt. 

witch. 

damsel,   ) 

maiden.  J 

Caroline. 


Youth, 
Charles, 

?  106.  b.  By  difference  of  termination. 

Most  words  of  this  class  are  appellations  of  office,  occupation,  or 
rank,  and  the  feminine  generally  ends  in  ess  or  trix. 


rait,  archer,  viscount,'  author*  canoii,^^  diviner,  doctor*,  tailor,  Hebrew,  Jesuit, 
regent,  soldier,  warrior.  Change  ter  ar  tou  into  tress,  and  der  into  drms  : 
Actor,  doctor,  arbiter,  benefactor,  auditor,  enchanter,  elector,  instructor,  ciianter, 
songster,  conductor,  embassador,  hunter,  mister,  protector,  traitor,  commander, 
demander,  detractor,  victor,   suitor,  director*,  proprietor,  t^eamster,  idolater,  edi- 

I*  Words  marked  with  a  star,  have  also  some  other  form  to  denote  the  female. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. GENDERS. 


103 


tor,  progenitor,  fornicator,  porter,  painter,  orator*,  mediator*,  offender,  solicitor, 
rector,  spectator*,  creator,  emulator,  exactor,  founder,  tutor,  huckster,  sempster, 
inhabiter,  minister,  waiter,  monitor,  deserter*,  inheritor*,  inventor,  competitor, 
executor*.  Chcmge  tok  into  trix:  Administrator,  executor,  adjutor,  testator, 
prosecutor,  inheritor,  director,  arbitrator.  Change  eer  into  Rtss:  Adulterer, 
adventurer,  caterer,  cloisterer,  hucksterer,  murderer,  sorcerer. 


Emperor, 

Negro, 

Governor, 

Votary, 

Tiger, 

Ivigle, 

Launderer, 

Duke, 

Tyrant, 

I'ythonist, 

Anchorite,  ) 

Anchoret,   j 

Hero, 


empress,    ) 

emperess.  ) 

negress. 

governess. 

votaress. 

tigress. 

eagless. 

laundress. 

duchess. 

tyranness. 

pythoness. 

anchoress. 

heroine. 


TVOEDS  NOT  SO   REGULAR. 

Carl,  carline.  Don, 

Landgrave,      langravine.  Infant, 

Margrave,        margravine.  Tzar, 

Palsgrave,        palsgravine.  Sultan, 

Joseph,  Josephine.  Augustus, 

Tragedian,       tragedienne.  Cornelius, 

Chamberlain,  chambermaid.  George, 


Goodman 

Widower, 

Lover,  ) 

Love,    ) 

Signore, 

Marquis, 

Marquess, 


goody, 
widow. 

love. 

signora. 

marchioness. 


Henry, 

Julius, 

Louis, 
John, 
Frank, 
Francis 


,\ 


donna. 

infanta. 

tzarina. 

sultana. 

Augusta. 

Cornelia. 

Georgia. 

Henrietta. 

Julia,    I 

Juliet.  ) 

Louisa. 

Joanna. 

Frances.' 


?  107.  When,  for  either  sex,  the  appropriate  term  is  so  seldom 
used  as  to  be  uncouth,  the  other  term  may  be  preferred;  and 
wherever  there  is  a  term  for  but  one  of  the  sexes,  it  may  be  used 
for  the  other,  if  necessary. 

?  108.  Words  derived  or  compounded  from  others,  usually  express 
render  in  the  same  way. 


Ex. — "  Coheir, 


archduke,  archduchess ;  grandsire,  grandam ;  laud- 


lord,  landlady ;  schoolmaster,  schoolmistress  ;  schoolboy,  schoolgirl;  merman, 
maid  ;  grandfather,  grandmother  ;  slep-son,  ste^p-daaghter  ;  peacock,  peahen.'''' 

?  109.  c.  By  using  a  distinguishing  word. 

Ex. — ^e-bear,  she-'h&ax ;  A^-goat,  she-gooX  ;  Z»'McA;-rabbit,  ioe-rabbit ;  coc^-sparrow, 
^<?ft-sparrow ;  wta/4-servant,  ma it/-servaut;  mcile  descendants,  female  descendants  ; 
Mr.  Barton,  Mrs.  Barton  ;  Mr.  Reynolds,  Miss  Reynolds. 

?  110.  For  some  very  common  objects  we  have  a  common-gender 
term,  as  well  as  a  masculine  term  and  a  feminine. 

Ex. — Parent.,  father,  mother ;  child,  son,  daughter ;  person,  man,  woman. 

?  111.  Some  descriptive  terms  are  so  rarely  needed  to  denote  women, 
that  they  have  no  corresponding  feminine  terms. 

Ex.— Printer,  carpenter,  robber,  baker,  brewer,  hostler,  lawyer,  fop,  drummer, 
colonel. 

?  112.  Others  have  rarely  or  never  corresponding  masculine  terms. 
Ex.— Laundress,  seamstress,  brunette,  coquet,  jilt,  dowdy,  vixen,  termagant, 
liag. 

Creaiders  of  Proaionaas. 

The  speaker,  and  the  person  addressed,  being  mutually  present,  or  generallf 
known  to  each  other  in  regard  to  sex,  it  was  not  thought  necessary,  in  the  Ibrnia- 
tiou  of  speecli,  to  make  different  pronouns  for  distinguishing  them  in  regard  to 
sex.  The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  or  the  second  person  should  therefore 
be  parsed  as  of  tlio  common  gender,  unless  the  sex  becomes  morn  defluitely 


104  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. PERSONS. 

known  by  some  other  word  in  the  sentence.  In  the  third  person  singular,  how- 
ever, the  different  sexes  are  distinguished  by  personal  pronouns  adapted  in  gen- 
der to  each.       See  p.  11. 

•  113.  The  pronoun  it^  usually  regarded  neuter  only,  is,  I  suspect,  also  of 
the  common  gender,  when  it  stands  for  nouns  of  this  gender,  and  sometimes 
when  it  denotes  objects  slightly  personified. 

Ex. — " The  ^i^er  broke /^«  chain."  " Tiie  c,^tW  has  sini^ed  i^  frock."  "The 
mouse  ran  back  when  it  saw  me."  "  Sleep  never  visits  sorrow ;  when  it  does,  it  is 
a  comforter." — Shakespeare. 

i  114.  Indeed,  it  seems  that  the  three  pronouns  he,  she,  and  it,  may  some- 
times refer  to  objects  without  special  regard  to  sex ;  he  being  preferred  for  what 
is  large,  bold,  or  preeminent ;  she,  for  what  is  efieminate  or  dependent ;  and  it, 
for  what  is  small,  unimportant,  or  imperfectly  known.  I  think  I  have  noticed 
this  principle  often,  especially  in  oar  mode  of  speaking  of  laboring  animals  and 
of  pets. 

Ex. — '*  The  elephant  writhed  ?ds  lithe  proboscis."  "  The  swan  with  her  beauti- 
ful curving  neck."  ^ ^  The  sea-bird  ^vi.th.  its  Wild  scream."  "  ^er  young  the  par- 
tridge led." — Brya7d.  In  this  last  sentence,  the  other  words  make  the  feminine 
proi^un  preferable. 


Persons. 

?  The  per§OBS  of  a  word  shows  whether  it  refers  to  the  speaker, 
the  object  spoken  to,  or  the  object  spoken  of. 

?  There  are  three  persons;  i\iQ  first,  the  second,  and  the  third. 

The  word  persons  is  borrowed  from  Ptage-playing,  and  meant  originally  masks,  characters, 
actors,  or  speakers  on  the  stage;  and  thence  is  derived  its  sense  as  used  in  grammar. 

?  115.  The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker. 

Ex. — "/  William  Jones  here  certify,  that,"  &c.  "/mjAo  command  you,  am  the 
general."     "  Many  evils  beset  us  mortals.'''' 

?  116.  The  secoaid  person  represents  an  object  as  spoken  to. 

Ex. — "Henry,  shut  the  door."  ^^Friends,  Bomans,  countrymen!  lend  me  your 
ears."  "  0  thou  Almighty  God,  who  didst  create  this  wondrous  world."  "  Forbid 
it.  Justice.''''  "0  Liberty  !  what  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name  !" — Mad.  Roland. 
When  inanimate  objects  are  addressed,  they  are  of  course  personified. 

?  11*7.  The  tliird  person  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of. 

Ex. — "  The  c%  is  in  a  bowl  oi  mountains?''  "I  have  read  Webster^s  reply  to 
Bayne.''''     "  I  am  the  man  whom  you  wish  to  see."     "7b  fail  is  disgraceful." 

The  naming  of  the  diflferent  persons  as  shown  above,  first,  second,  and  third,  is  in  nccord- 
ance  with  the  natural  order  of  full  discourse  ;  as,  "  I  James  Bennett  certify  to  you,  William 
Morrison,  that  Timothy  Flirit  is  the  legal  owner  of  this  farm.'"  It  is  also  obvious,  that  wo 
can  refer,  in  speaking,  only  to  ourselves,  to  something  spoken  to,  or  to  something  spoken  of. 

?  118.  When  a  noun  comes  after  a  verb  to  explain  the  nomina- 
tive, it  is  of  the  third  person,  though  the  nominative  may  be  of  the 
first  or  the  second  person. 

Ex. — "We  are  fhe  patrons  that  will  support  you."  "You  are  the  pej'son 
wanted."  "  I  am  sAer^  of  the  county."  "We  are  strangers  here."  "  You  are 
heroes. ^^ 

Person  rather  disappears  from  the  words  sheriff,  strangers,  and  heroes,  as  here 
used  without  an  article.  Sheriff,  for  instance,  does  not  seem  to  denote  the  speaker 
as  such,  nor  a  person  spoken  of  as  such,  but  is  simply  descriptive  somewhat  like 
an  adjective. 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. NUMBERS.  105 

?  119.  A  word  used  in  speaking  of  one  or  of  a.  part  of  the  persons 
speaking  or  addressed,  is  in  tlie  third  person. 

Ex. — "  Each  o)ie  of  us  is  studyinff  his  lesson."  "  Every  one  of  you  knows  Tiis 
duty."  "/S'owe  of  you  have  lost  their  places."  (Speaking  to  a  spelling-class.) 
**Some  of  you  have  lost  your  places,"  sounds  perhaps  better  to  some  ears  ;  yet  the 
former  is  the  correct  expression  according  to  principle. 

?  120.  The  third  person  is  sometimes  elegantly  used  for  the  first 
or  the  second. 

Ex. — "The  king  is  always  willing  to  listen  to  tlie  just  complaints  of  his  sub- 
jects ;"  for,  "  I  am  always,"  &c.  "  Surely,  my  mother  does  not  mean  to  marry  me 
to  such  an  old  miser ;"  for,  "  Surely,  mother,  you  do  not,"  &c. 


S'ersons  of  pronouns. 

?  121.  The  pronouns  of  the  first  person  plural,  we,  our,  ours,  etc., 
are  used  when  the  speaker  includes  others  with  himself;  and  some- 
times, to  represent  two  or  more  persons  as  uttering  the  same  thing 
together. 

Ex.— "Let -ws  go."  "  John,  Mary,  and  T,  must  learn  o«r  lessons."  "  TFe,  the 
people,"  &c. — GonstUvtion,  of  the  U,  S.  "  We  are  going  to  the  mountains." — Rocky' 
Mountain  Song. 

?  122.  The  pronouns  of  the  second  person  plural,  you,  your,  etc., 

are  used  to  denote  two  or  more  persons  addressed,  or  one  only  with 

others  included. 

Ex. — "  My  countrymen,  I  appeal  to  you.''''  ''Tou  boys  may  go  and  play."  "  Jbt^, 
sir,  you  were  the  boys  that  threw  rocks' through  the  windows."  "J^m  mechanics 
[speaking  to  one  only]  are  required  to  work  only  ten  hours  per  day." 

?  123.  Hence  it  is,  perhaps,  that  we  and  you,  as  well  as  they, 
sometimes  refer  to  mankind  generally. 

Ex. — "  We  are  apt  to  love  those  who  love  us."  "  Tou  may  as  well  seek  honey 
in  gall,  as  happiness  in  vice."  "  Shakespeare  presents  to  you  the  universal  world." 
*'They  say  that  Buchanan  will  be  elected."  "T/iey  say  that  free  governments  will 
ultimately  be  established  in  all  parts  of  the  world." 

?  When  a  pronoun  refei-s  to  two  or  more  substantives  taken 
together,  and  of  different  persons,  it  prefers  the  first  person  to  the 
second,  and  the  second  to  the  third. 

Ex,—"  James  and  I  have  lost  our  horses."  "  James  and  yqu  have  lost  ymr 
Inarses." 


]\uiiibei*§. 

?  The  number  of  a  word  shows  whether  the  word  refers  to 
one  object  or  to  more  than  one. 

?  There  are  two  numbers ;  the  singular  and  the  plural. 
t  124,  The  singular  number  denotes  but  one. 
Ex.— Apple,  knife,  pin,  grain,  flower,  I,  he,  one,  an,  this,  that. 

t  125.  The  plural  number  denotes  more  than  one. 

Ex.— Apples,  knives,  grains,  mice,  flowers,  we,  they,  ones,  these,  those. 


100  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. NUMBERS. 

?  126.  Two  or  more  singulars  connected  merely  by  anjt,  are 
equivalent  to  a  plural. 

Ex. — "  John^  James,  and  TJwmas,  are  studying"  =Tlie  toys  are  studying. 

?  127.  Two  or  more  objects  viewed  one  by  one,  or  separately, 

have  words  referring  to  tbem  in  the  singular  number. 

Ex. — "  Every  heart  best  hnows  its  own  sorrows."  "  Neither  Mary  nor  Mar- 
tha has  studied  her  lesson." 

?  128.  A  possession  or  attribute  relating  in  common  to  several 

objects,  should  generally  be  expressed  by  a  singular  word. 

Ex. — "  It  was  done  for  our  sake,'''  no'C sokes.  "  Let  tliem  be  content  with  their 
Zoi,"  not  lots.     "  You  and  I  have  the  s,!xmQ  purpose,  but  ditferent  judgments." 

?  129.  A  proper  noun,  when  pluralized,  denotes  a  race  or  family, 

or  two  or  more  objects  as  having  the  same  name  or  character. 

Ex. — "  The  Dixons  and  the  Boltons."  "  The  twelve  Caesars."  "  Her  Marions, 
Sumpters,  Eutledges,  and  Finkneys." 

?  130.  Abstract  or  material  nouns,  as  such,  are  never  plural,  ex- 
cept a  few  that  have  no  singular  form. 

Ex. — Pride,  ambition,  hope,  motion,  duration,  business ;  gold,  copper,  meat, 
hay,  straw,  specie,  butter,  cider,  beer,  molasses,  ivy,  fire,  snow,  mud,  water,  flax, 
silk,  dust;  ashes,  oats. 

?  131.  Sometimes  they  are  pluralized  to  denote  more  kinds 
than  one. 

Ex. — Diseases,  fevers,  vices,  airs,  wines,  teas,  cottons,  silks,  satins,  taxes. 

?  132.  Sometimes  they  denote  two  or  more  objects  having  the 
quality  or  substance,  or  else  something  as  composed  of  parts. 

Ex. — Curiosities,  slates,  straws,  timbers,  proceedings,  liberties,  rights.  *'  All 
the  sisters  are  beauties.''''  "The  heights  of  Abraham,  at  Quebec."'  "My  marlles.'''' 
"  I  had  only  a  few  coppers  left."     "  I  heard  the  waters  roar  down  the  cataract." 

?  133.  Some  nouns  that  denote  objects  consisting  of  two  parts,  or 
conceived  to  consist  of  many  parts  or  individuals,  are  always  plural. 

Ex. — Tongs,  scissors,  lungs,  embers,  ashes,  pincers,  breeches,  trousers,  draw- 
ers, hose,  bowels,  entrails,  intestines,  billiards,  calends,  ides,  nones,  annals, 
archives,  clothes,  goggles,  snuffers,  stairs,  head-quarters,  poetics,  riches,  victuals, 
assets,  teens,  matins,  vespers,  hemorrhoids,  iiy3ter''ics,  dreg'-"-,  bitters,  filings, 
remains,  obsequies,  nuptials,  chops,  spatterdashes,  st:itisties,  folks,  aborlg'ines, 
afBtip'odes,  mammalia,  grallse,  passeres,  sporades,  regalia,  paraphernalia,  vetches, 
cattle,  hustings,  belles-lettres  (bel-let'tr).  Except,  however,  the  class,  fwrnHwre^ 
jewelry,  hosiery,  etc.,  which  are  singular. 

•  134.  Sometimes  such  a  word  may  be  used  in  the  singular  number  to  denote 
a  part,  or  to  denote  the  object  as  an  individual,  or  to  denote  the  entire  collectiuu 
us  one  thing. 

Ex. — "  The  left  lung  was  diseased."  "  A  stair ;  a  bellows  ;  the  annal ;  a  valu- 
able statistic." 

1  135.  Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  for  either  number. 
Ex. — Deer,  sheep,  swine,  grouse,  series,  species,  superficies,  corps,  apparatus, 
means. 

?  136,  A  collective  noun  is  plural,  even  when  singular  in  form 
yet  plural  in  idea. 

Ex. — "  The  American  people  are  jealous-  and  watchful  of  their  liberties." 


.-xUUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. NUMBERS.  107 

In  a  few  instances,  the  same  collective  noun  is  used  in  both  numbers  in  the 
same  sentence,  and  perhaps  not  improperly.  "  Each  ITouse  shall  keep  a  iournal  of 
its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as 
may  in  iAeir  judgment  require  secrecy."—  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  "  There 
M  a  tribe  in  these  mountains,  who  are  fairer  and  more  intelligent  than  the  other 
Indians." — Irving.  The  first  view  refers  to  the  whole  ;  and  the  other,  to  the 
individuals. 

?  137.  Some  nouns  denoting  animals,  and  also  words  of  number 
preceded  by  a  numeral  adjective,  are  sometimes  used  in  the  sin- 
gular form  to  express  a  plural  sense. 

Ex. — "  This  creek  abounds  in  trout  and  perch.'''' — Exploring  Expedition.  To 
sav,  "  in  trouts  and  perches^''  might  mean  ditfereut  kincfs.  "  FowL  and  fish  for 
sale."  ^^  Two  pair ;  three  dozen;  threescore;  &ve  hv/idred.''^  Here  the  numeral 
adjective  seems  of  itself  sufficient  to  determine  or  express  the  number. 

138.  Foot  and  horse,  in  the  sense  of  troops,  and  sail,  in  the  sense  of  ships, 
are  plural.     Sometimes  cannon  and  shot  are  plural :   also  head;  as,  "forty  head." 

?  139.  In  a  word,  the  singular  form  of  some  words  is  some- 
times used  for  the  plural  form,  though  the  latter  may  also  be  in 
good  use. 

Ex. — "The/oe.'  they  come;  they  come." — Byron.  "Where  the  heithen,  in 
their  blindness,  bow  down  to  stocks  and  stones." — Heher.  "  All  manner  of  evil." 
"  To  mould  brick  and  burn  them."     "  We  have  caught  some  ^sA." 

"  They  had  herrings  and  mackerels.^*  '■'■IVoids  and  salmons  swim  against  the 
stream."  ^'' Fowls  and  fishes.''''  "In  scores  and  dozens.''''  "By  hundreds  and 
thousands^''     "  Cannons  and  muskets.'''' 

?  140.  In  using  the  singular  form,  the  mind  dwells  perhaps 
rather  on  the  nature  than  on  the  number  of  the  objects, — on  what 
is  meant  rather  than  on  how  many  are  meant. 

?  141.  The  singular  form  and  the  plural  sometimes  differ  in 
sense,  or  are  different  words. 

Ex. — Arm,  arms  (weapons) ;  letter,  letters  (literature) ;  pain,  pains  (care) ;  color, 
colors  (banner)  ;  means,  m/inners,  morals,  physics,  ashes. 

?  142.  Some  nouns,  though  always  plural  in  form,  are  considered 
to  be  either  singular  or  plural,  according  as  the  mind  conceives 
the  thing  as  composed  of  parts,  or  as  a  single  object  of  thought. 

Ex. — News,  odds,  means,  amends,  alms,  suds,  mathematics,  politics,  etliics, 
physics,  optics,  mechanics,  hydraulics,  apocrypha,  muinp.^,  measles,  rickets.  "  The- 
measles  havk  broken  out  thick  upon  him."  "  The  measles  is  sometimes  a  danger- 
ous disease."  "  There  the  diffei-ent  politics  of  the  day  were  discussed."  ^'■Tol'i- 
tics  13  an  uncertain  profession."  "  Can  all  that  optics  tuaoii  unfold  thy  form  to 
please  me  so?" — Campbell's  Bainbow.  The  tendency  ratlier  is,  to  construe  such 
words  plurally,  except  a  few  of  the  most  common  ones.  Writers  sometimes  slum 
the  doubtful  construction,  by  saying,  for  instance,  "  The  science  of  mathematics 
is" ;  "  Physical  science  is" . 

It  is  the  sense  rather  than  the  form,  that  determines  the  number;  honce  mo- 
lasses, jeans,  &c.,  are  singular,  though  they  end  in  s.  A  noun  that  makes  sense 
with  a  or  an  before  it,  or  is  after  it,  is  singular;  a  noun  that  makes  sense  with  ixoo 
or  these  before  it,  or  are  atter  it,  is  plural. 


ll»\fr  tlie  plural  niiinber  Is  expres^ied. 

?  143.  Most  nouns  become  plural  by  adding  s  to  the  singular. 

'Ex.— Book,  books;  street,  streets ;  hat,  hats  ;  river,  rivers;  village,  villages. 


108  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. NUMBERS. 

?  144.  When  s  alone  annexed,  could  not  be  easily  pronounced; 
and  when  the  singular  ends  in  2,  o,  w,  or  y,  preceded  each  by  a 
consonant, — the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  es. 

Ex. — Church,  churches;  bench,  benches;  blush,  Mushes'  miss,  misses;  atlas, 
atlases;  isthmus,  isthmuses;  topaiS,  topazes;  tax,  taxes ;  alkali,  alkalies ;  rabbi, 
rabbles;  halo,  haloes;  negro,  negroes;  gnu,  gnues ;  story,  stories;  "the  Winneba- 
go~es  ;  the  Missouri-es.'''' 

?  145.  Proper  nouns,  foreign  nouns,  and  unusual  nouns,  are 
changed  as  little  as  possible,  and  hence  often  assume  s  only. 

Ex. — Henry,  Henrys  ;  Tally,  Tullys  '  Mary,  Marys;  Cicero,  Giceros ;  Scipio, 
Scipios  ;  Nero,  JVeros.  "  The  two  Miss  Foots."  Teocalli  (Mexican  temple),  "  teo- 
cauis  ;^'  major-domo,  '■'■  major-do rnos.'''' — Prescott.  "  The  novel  is  fall  of  ohs,  lys, 
whys,  alsos,  and  noes.'''' — Review.  And,  owing  to  their  foreign  tinge,  we  still  find 
in  good  use,  cantos,  grottos,  juntos,  m,ementos,  octavos,  porticos,  quartos,  solos,  tyros, 
zeros,  in  steud  of  catitoes  from  canto,  grottoes  from  grotto,  juntoes  from  junto,  etc., 
which  are  also  coming  into  use. 

But  when  words  of  these  classes  are  so  familiarly  known  as  to  be  easily  recog- 
nized in  almost  any  form,  they  are  often  pluralized  like  ordinary  nouns  ;  as,  Har- 
ries, Henries,  Maries,  Ptolemies,  Neroes,  whies,  noes. 

?  146.  The  following  nouns  change  their  ending  into  ves : — 

Beef,  beeves;  calf,  calves;  elf,  elves;  half,  halves;  knife,  halves;  leaf ,  leaves ; 
life,  lives;  loaf,  loaves;  selt,  selves;  sheaf,  sheaves;  shelf,  shelves;  thief,  thieves; 
wife,  wives  ;  wolf,  wolves.  Wharf  has  sometimes  wharves — a  heavier  word  for  pro- 
nunciation. Staff  has  staves,  when  not  compounded;  but  it  should  always  have 
staffs,  to  distinguish  its  plural  from  staves,  the  plural  of  stave. 

?  147.  For  forming  the  plural  of  some  words,  no  general  rule 
can  be  given,  and  they  are  therefore  said  to  be  irregular. 

Man,        men.         Foot,    feet.      Ox,        oxen.  Cow,        cows.  L         we. 

"Woman,  women.    Goose,  geese.  Mouse,  mice.   Cow  has  also  klne.  Thou,  you. 

Child,      children.  Tooth,  teeth.   Louse,  hce.    the  old  or  poetic  plural.  He,      they. 

The  words  ending  in  man,  that  are  not  compounds  of  man,  are  regular  and  take 
s;  as,  German,   Germans;  talisman,  talismans;  y[.\x^s,vl-axan,  Mussulmans. 

?  148.  Some  nouns  have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular  plu- 
ral, but  with  a  difference  in  meaning. 

Brother,  brothers  (of  the  same  family),  brethren  ('of  the  same  society). 

Die,  dies  (8tamj)s  for  coining),  di^ce  (small  cubes  for  gaming). 

Fish,  fishes  (individuals),  fish  (quantity,  or  the  species). 

Genius,  geniuses  (men  of  genius),  genii  (spirits). 

Index,  indexes  (tables  of  contents),  indices  (algebraic  signs). 

Fenny,  j9e/i/iies  (pieces  of  money),  j06wce  (^how  much  in  value). 

Fea,  peas  (individuals — two  or  more),  pease  (m  distinction  from  other  vegetables). 

?  149.  Most  compound  words  are  pluralized,  by  making  plural 
only  that  part  of  the  word  which  is  described  by  the  rest. 

Ex. — "  Mouse-traps,  ox-carts,  brothers-in-law,  sisters-in-law,  billets-doux, 
courts-martial,  aids-de-camp,  capfuls,  spoonfuls,  coachfuls,  wagon-loads,  com- 
manders-in-ciiietj  cestuis  qut;  trust."  It  is  generally  the  first  part  of  a  compound 
word,  that  is  descriptive,  or  is  used  in  the  sense  of  a  prefix. 

J  150.   When  the  compound  word   is  a  foreign  term  or  other 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. NUMBERS.  109 

phrase,  of  whicb.    the  descriptive    part    is   not    very   obvious,    the 
whole  word  is  generally  pluralized  like  a  simple  one. 

Ex. — "Piano-fortes,  camera-obscuras,  auto-dft-fes,  cong4-d'-t^Iires,  louis-d'ors, 
flower-de-luces,  tete-a-tetes,  ipse-dixits,  habeas-corpuses,  scire-faciases,  jack-a- 
lan  terns." 

?  151.  A  few  compound  words  have  both  parts  made  plural. 
Ex. — Man-servant,    men-servants;    woman-servant,    women-servants;   knight- 
templar,  knights-templars  (better,  knights  tenvplar)  ;  ignis-fatuua,  ignes-fatui." 

?  152.  A  term  composed  of  a  proper  name  preceded  by  a 
title,  is  pluralized  by  annexing  the  plural  termination  to  either, 
the  name  or  the  title,  but  not  to  both. 

Ex. — "The  Misses  Davidson;  the  Miss  Browns;  the  Drs.  Edmondson*  the 
Messrs.  Harper."  "The  Misses  Warner." — Morris  and  Willis.  "The  Misses 
Smith." — Bryant.  "The  Miss  Hornecks.'''' — Irving.  "With  respect  to  the  Miss 
TJiompsons^  or  the  Misses  Thompson^  I  am  decidedly  for  the  Miss  Thompsons. — Ar- 
nold''s  Grammar:  London.  "  Some  persons  would  say  the  Miss  Thompsons,  others 
the  Misses  Thompson :  the  former  mode  is  clearly  more  in  keeping  witn  the  general 
practice  of  the  language,  and  one's  leaning  at  first  would  be  toward  it;  but  those 
who  plume  themselves  on  their  accuracy  adopt  the  latter." — Ih.  "  From  Duchesses 
and  Lad >/ Maries.''^ — Pope.  "I  went  to  the  Ladies  Butler.''^ — Swift.  "May  there 
be  Sir  Isaac  Newtons  in  every  science." —  Watts. 

?  153.  But  when  the  title  is  Mrs.,  or  is  preceded  by  a  nume- 
ral, the  latter  noun  is  always  pluralized. 

Ex.— "The  Mrs.  Welbys:'  "The  two  Mr.  Barlmvs.''  "The  two  Miss  Scotts 
had  been  gathering  flowers."— //-ym^.  "  The  two  beautiful  Miss  Glarks."  The 
word  Miss,  in  such  phrases,  bears  more  resemblance  to  an  adjective  than  to  a 
noun :  its  use  is  similar  to  that  of  the  adjectives  in  such  phrases  as,  "  The  stingy 
old  miser;"  "  The  two  stingy  old  misers." 

?  154.  And  the  title  is  always  pluralized,  when  it  refers  to  two 
or  more  different  or  separate  persons. 

Ex. — "Z'rs.  Bruns,  Edwards,  and  Johnson  ;"  ^^ Misses  Mary  and  Julia  Harrison." 
In  regard  to  the  plural  of  names  involving  titles,  there  has  been  not  a  little  of  di- 
versity in  practice  and  doctrine.  Some  always  pluralize  the  title  ;  others,^  the 
name ;  and  a  few  venture  to  pluralize  both.  The  previdling  custom  is,  I  believe, 
not  to  phiralize  that  word  of  the  term  which  the  speaker  means  to  use  as  explana- 
tory or  descriptive  of  the  other.  It  would  be  an  elegant  distinction,  and  in  the 
analogy  of  such  plurals  as  teas,  silks,  wines,  &c.,  to  pluralize  the  title  only,  when 
brothers  or  sisters  are  meant ;  and  the  name  only,  when  the  persons  belong  to  dif- 
ferent families  of  the  same  name,— to  say  "  the  Misses  Brown''  when  the  ladies  are 
sisters,  and  "  the  Miss  Browns''  when  they  are  not.  But  as  this  distinction  would 
sometimes  perplex  the  writer  in  addressing  persons  whose  family  relations  he  does 
not  know,  it  will  probably  never  be  adopted.  To  persons  wishing  a  plain  and 
positive  rule,  I  would  say.  Always  pluralize  the  title  only,  when  it  is  Mister,  Miss, 
or  Doctor,  not  preceded  by  a  numeral ;  as,  "  Tiie  Messrs.  Morton  ;"  "  The  Misses 
Dixon;"  ''The  Drs.  Bolton  ;"  '' Drs.  Bolton."  This  mode  of  pluraliziiig  such 
terms  will,  I  believe,  ultimately  prevail  in  this  country  ;  and  I  rather  think  it  has 
the  best  right  to  do  so.  It  is  a  law  of  our  language  to  vary. proper  names  as  little 
as  possible  ;  some  proper  names  can  not  well  be  pluralized  ;  many  proper  names 
have  both  the  singular  and  the  plural  form,  yet  are  singular  in  each,  and  mean  dit- 
ferent  persons.  "Drs.  Mott.  Office,"  plainly  denotes  two  men;  but  "  Dr.  Motts. 
Office,"  would  probably  be  understood  as  denoting  but  one  man.  Besides,  we 
always  pluralize  the  title  when  but  once  used  in  speaking  of  several  persons  taken 
distributively  ;  as,  "  The  Messrs.  John  and  Thomas  Wharton  ;"  "  'ihQ  Messra. 
Newman  and  Patterson;"  "The  Mess7's.  Branch  &  Co.;"  "James  and  VVilham 
Simms,  Esquires  ;"  and,  to  add  the  strongest  argument  in  conclusion,  1  wmud  say 
that  almost  all  the  advertisements  which  I  have  seen— at  least  thirty  or  lorty— of 


110 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS, NUMBERS. 


eminent  schools  condacted  by  an  association  of  ladies  or  gentlemen  of  the  same 
name,  begin  with  "The  Misses''' ,  or,  "The  Messrs. ,  will  recom- 
mence," &c. 

Our  language  has  many  words  adopted  from  other  languages.  These 
usually  retain  the  same  plural  in  ours  that  thoy  have  in  the  languages 
from  which  they  were  taken.  Some,  however,  take  tlie  English  plural 
only ;  some,  the  foreign  only ;  and  some,  either.  No  certain  rule  cau 
be  given  for  forming  such  plurals,  but  the  following  may  be  of  some 
assistance : — 

?  155.  The  termination  us  is  changed  to  i;  iim  or  o?2,  to  a;  «*, 
to  es  or  ides  ;  a,  to  ce  or  ata  ;  and  x  or  ex.,  to  ces  or  ices., 

Those  nouns  of  the  followitig  list,  which  have  become  so  far  naturalized  as  to  have  also  a  regu- 
lar plural  like  that  of  the  natives,  in  addition  to  their  original  plural,  are  distinguished  by  ItnlicB. 


Change  final 

to  ^: — 
Larva, 
Lam'ina, 
Mac'ala,     ' 
Minu'tia, 
Neb'ula, 
Sil'iqua, 
Sim'ia, 
Sco'ria, 
Alumna, 
Alu'mina, 
Are'na, 
Form' aid. 

A  to  ATA  : — 

Dogma., 
Stigma., 
Mias'ma. 

Us  to  I  :— 

Alumnus, 

Focus, 

Fungus^ 

Genius., 

Ma'gns, 

Ob'olns, 

PoVyp'us^ 

Ra'd%us, 

Stim'ulus, 

Cal'culus, 

Echi'nus, 

Nau'tilus., 

Nu'deus, 


Sarcoph''agu3, 

Hippopof'Hmus. 

Um,  on,  to  a: — 

AnimMl'culum, 

Arca'num, 

A  utom'aton, 

Crite'rton, 

Corrigen-'dum, 

Da'tum, 

Desidera'tum, 

Efflu'vium, 

Ephem'eron, 

Enco'talum^ 

Erra-'tum, 

Gym,na'sium., 

Jlerha'riuvi^ 

Me'dium., 

Memoran'dum, 

Afometi'tum., 

Pheuom'enon, 

Scli&lium., 

Spec'ulum, 

SLra'tum.! 

Men'struum, 

Sp:^ctrum, 

Vin'culnm, 

Trape'zium, 

ParUe'liou, 

xVphe'lton, 

Periiie'liou. 

Is  to  ES : — 

Axis, 


Amanuen'sis, 

Analysis, 

Antith'esis, 

Basis, 

Crisis, 

Diser'esis, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

O'asis, 

Borea'Iis, 

Thesis, 

Phasis, 

Praxis, 

Fascis, 

Di'esis, 

Metiimor'phos 

Synopsis, 

Paren'thesis, 

Hypoth'esis, 

Sva'thesis, 


Is  to  IDES  : — 

Chry8''alis, 

Ephem'eris, 

Can'tharis, 

Epider'mis, 

A'phis, 

Apsis, 

Iris, 

Frohoscis. 

X  to  CEs : — 

Appendix., 


Galx^ 

Ca'hx, 

Cic'atrix, 

imix, 

Ma'triXy 

Ba'dix, 

Quincunx., 

PhaVanXy 
Lar'ynx, 
Beau, 
Gher'-ub, 
Ser'aph, 
Sta'men, 
Tegmcu, 
3,  Legu'men, 
Bandit, 
Virtuo'so, 
Gicero'ne, 
Litterateur'. 
Ge-'nus, 
Monsieur, 
Madame, 
Mr. 

Ignis-fat'wjs., 
ITia'tus, 
Appara'tus, 
Ver'tigo, 
Billet-doux, 
Ma'lum  prohib'- 
itum, 


Va'rix. 

Ex  to  ICES  : — 

Apex, 

Vertex, 

Vortexy 
Index. 
Caudex. 

phalan'ges. 

laryn'ges. 

beaux. 

cher-'ubim. 

ser'aphim. 

stam'ina. 

teg'mina. 

legu'mina. 

banditti. 

virtu  o'si. 

cicero'ni. 

literati. 

gen'era. 

Messieurs. 

Mesdames. 

Messrs. 

ignes-fatui. 

hiatus. 

apparatus. 

vertig'ines. 

billets-doux. 

mala  prohibits. 


I  believe  the  tendency  is,  to  give  the  preference  to  the  English  phiral  in 
familiar  language ;  to  the  foreign,  in  technical  or  scientific  language. 

?  156.  Letters,  figures,  and  otlier  characters,  are  pluralized  by 
addinaj  V 

Ex. — "  The  «'«  and  n's  in  the  first  line."  "  By  5's  and  7's."  "  What  meon 
those  5  's  ftnd  G. '»  ^"  Tlie  apostrophe  is  used  to  prevent  ambiguity ;  thus,  "  Crosa 
your  fs  and  dot  your  i's,"  is  not  the  same  as  "  Cross  your  t»  ana  dot  your  w."  Ct» 
might  mean  5  Bh'illingB  or  five  times  s. 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. XUMBERS.  Ill 


!ViimS>er»  of  Pronouns. 

?  157.  In  editorials,  speeches,  and  proclamations,  we^  our,  etc., 
are  frequently  used  to  denote  apparently  but  one. 

Ex. — '*  We  trust  these  sentiments  -will  meet  with  approbation."  "  We  believe 
provisions  will  be  scarce."     "  We  shall  not  yield  to  our  rebellious  subjects." 

This  manner  of  speakina:  gives  generally  an  air  of  modesty  or  authority  to  the 
assertion ;  the  speaker  seeming  to  deliver  his  own  sentiments  as  if  they  were  also 
entertained,  or  could  be  enforced,  by  others  as  well  as  by  himself.  Let  a  writer  in 
an  influential  periodical  say,  "  /  believe  there  is  an  impending  crisis  in  the  money 
market,"  and  who  cares  for  or  heeds  his  assertion  ?  but  let  him  say,  "  We  believe 
there  is  an  impending  crisis  in  the  money  market,"  and  the  expression  will  at  once 
strike  alarm  and  terror  into  the  hearts  of  thousands.  The  one  is  presented  as  the 
opinion  of  the  writer  only,  the  other  as  that  of  the  community.  15ut  the  palpable 
use  of  we  for  /,  is,  like  some  other  politeness,  unsupported  by  nature  and  good 
pense.  Some  one  has  said,  that  it  is  as  if  the  person  were  ashamed  to  show  his  face. 
It  is  generally  assumed  as  a  veil  of  modesty,  or  to  avoid  "  the  charge  of  egotism." 
Many  of  the  greatest  masters  of  our  language,  namely,  Johnson,  Whateley,  Web- 
ster, and  others,  have  not  been  afraid  or  ashamed  to  use  the  abhorred  7.  An 
author  may  sometimes  use  we,  not  in  reference  to  his  party,  or  the  world  generally, 
but  simply  in  reference  to  his  reader  as  going  along  with  him, — a  sort  of  grandpa 
style  ;  but  when  there  is  no  reference  whatever  to  any  others  than  himself,  the  use  of 
we  for /may  be  more  polite,  yet  it  is  certai:;ly  less  correct.  Authors  often  avoid  the 
dilemma,  by  speaking  of  themselves  in  the  third  person.  When  responsibility  or  an 
unenviable  position  is  to  be  assumed,  it  is  obviously  more  polite  to  use  /than  we. 

To  the  foregoing  manner  of  speaking,  ourself  is  peculiarly  adapted,  and  it  is 
sometimes  used  accordingly*  but  yowrmf  is  strictly  singular.  "  What  then  re- 
mains?    Ourself.'''' — Pope's  Vunciad  ;  The  Goddess  of  DuUness. 

?  158.   You,  your,  yours,  etc.,  are  now  singular  as  well  as  plural. 

"  It  is  altogether  absurd  to  consider  you  as  exclusively  a  plural  pronoun  in  the 
modern  English  language.  It  may  be  a  matter  of  history,  that  it  was  originally 
used  as  a  plural  only;  and  it  may  be  a  matter  of  theory,  that  it  was  first  applied 
to  individuals  on  a  principle  of  ilattery ;  but  the  fact  is,  that  it  is  now  our  second 
person  singular.  When  applied  to  an  individual,  it  never  excites  any  idea  either 
of  plurality  or  of  adulation  ;  but  excites,  precisely  and  exactly,  the  idea  that  was 
excited  "by  thou,  in  an  earlier  stage  of  the  language." — Lord  Jeffrey:  Ed'cnburgh 
Review. 

The  Quakerism  of  Murray  and  Brown  accounts  for  their  partiality  to  Thou. 

?  159.  When  a  pronoun  stands  for  two  or  mors  nouns  taken 
together,  that  are  equivalent  in  sense  to  a  plural,  or  when  any 
one  of  the  substantives  referred  to  is  plural,  the  pronoun  must  be 
plural;  but  when  it  refers  to  a  singular  implying  more  than  one 
object,  or  to  several  singulars  taken  separately  or  individually,  it 
must  be  singular. 

Ex. — "  John  and  Jame^  are  studying  their  lessons."  "  Neither  the  father  nor 
ths  sons  ever  surrendered  their  riglits.''  '•'•Eoery  one  should  have  his  own  pUce." 
'■'■A  person  should  never  be  very  sanguine  in  his  expectations." 

?  160.  Each  other  applies  to  two  only,  or  to  pairs;  one  another^ 
to  more  than  two. 

Ex. — "  The  brother  and  sister  love  each  other.''''  "  Wives  and  husbands  are,  in- 
deed, incessantly  complaining  o^  each  other.'''' — Johnson.  "Put  the  dozen  cv/p» 
within  one  another.''''     "  The  several  Indian  chiefs  made  peace  with  one  another.^^ 


112  'nouns    and    pronouns. CASES. 

?  161.  JVIuit,  in  close  connection  with  a  plural,  is  sometimes 
used  in  the  plural  number. 

Ex. — "  We  were  now  at  the  mercy  of  what  are  called  gjierillas." — Travels  in 
Mexico.     "  I  must  now  turn  to  the  faults,  or  what  appear  such  to  me." — Byron. 

Other  was  formerly  sometimes  used  for  others. 

Another==an  other  ;  hence,  singular. 

?  None  (no-one)  is  singular  or  plural,  and  it  is  generally  used  for  no  and  a 
noun. 

For  more  in  regard  to  the  Numbers  of  Pronouns,  see  page  8.    See  also  pp.  178-9, 


Cases. 

?  The  ca§e§  are  the  relations  of  substantives  to  the  other  words 
of  a  sentence. 

?  There  are  three  cases ;  the  nominative,  the  possessive,  and  the 
objective. 

Some  grammarians  give  another  case, — the  independent,  or  absolute  ;  but  there  i 


to  be  no  more  propriety  in  distinguishing  this  case  from  the  nominative,  than  there  would  be 
in  dividing  the  differently  governed  objective  cases  into  two  or  three  classes. 

?  162.  The  11  OBiii native  case  is  the  case  of  a  substantive  to 
which  a  predicate  directly  refers.  , 

Ex. — "  The  moon  shines  beautifully  upon  the  garden."  "  John  and  James  ark 
PLAYING,  but  jrow  and  /are  studying."  '■^  The  murderer  yi^As  hanged."  "Dear 
ARE  the  recollections  of  youth."  "  The  sum  of  live  thousand  dollars  was  paid." 
The  nominative  can  always  be  found  by  asking  a  question  with  who  or  what  before 
the  verb.     "  The  river  is  deep."     What  is  deep  ?    The  river. 

?  163.  The  nominative  case  is  the  case  of  a  substantive  that 
is  used  independently  or  absolutely,  or  whose  case  depends  on  no 
other  word. 

Ex. — In dependently :  '•'■John,  you  may  go  for  some  water."  "  You  may 
recite,  Mary.''''  "  Mr.  President,  it  is  natural  for  man  to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of 
Hope."  "Rise,  fellow-men !  our  countrv  yet  I'einains."  "  Ye  flowers  that  cluster 
by  eternal  frosts."  "  And  Harry's ^^es/i  it  "fell  away."  '•'•He  that  hath  ears  to  hear, 
let  him  hear."  "  O  Absalom  !  Absalom  !  my  son,  my  son  !"  '•'•  Reputat'ion  !  repu- 
tation !  oh,  I  have  lost  it!"  "  And  then  she  died,  poor  thing  !"  ''^Webster's  Dic- 
tionary, Unabridged."  California :  what  can  you  say  about  it !"  "  His  bed  and 
hoard!  he  never  had  any  !" 

"  The  isles  of  Greece  !  the  isles  of  Greece  I 
Where  burning  Sappho  loved  and  sung." — Byron. 

The  student  can  observe,  that  the  Italicized  words  neither  govern  other  words 
nor  are  they  governed  by  other  words.  Such  substantives  generally  occur  in  ad- 
dresses or  in  exclamations  ;  or,rather,  they  are  used  to  direct  the  attention  of  some 
one  addressed,  to  what  the  speaker  says,  or  else  to  draw  attention  to  what  the 
word  denotes.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  last  example  above,  they  imply  that  the 
speaker's  feelings  are  so  enkindled  by  the  contemplation  of  the  object,  that  the 
ffood  of  accumulated  feeling  bursts  forth  at  once,  and  without  an  effort  on  his  part. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Fiddle-sticks  !  who  cares  for  what  he  thinks  ?"  fiddle-sticka 
is  simply  an  interjection,  because  it  is  used  as  the  mere  index  of  a  sudden  emo- 
tion, and  is  not  uttered  to  draw  attention  to  the  musical  implements  themselves. 

Absolutely:  '■'•Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost.  "  / being  sick,  the  busi- 
ness was  neglected."  "  Flash  following  flash,  we  had  but  little  hope."  "  The 
work  being  done,  we  wont  to  the  river  to  fi8h"=When  the  work  was  done,  &c. 
"  His  being  &  foreigner,  was  the  cause  of  his  defeat"  ==  He  was  defeated  because  he 
was  a  foreigner.  "  Ko  one  was  aware  of  his  being  a  runaway  ;"  better,  "  No  one 
was  aware  that  he  was  a  runaway."  "  To  become  a  spendthrift,  is  easy"-=A  per- 
son may  easily  become  a  spendthrift.    *'  To  be  a  respectable  preacher  or  doctor,  is 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. CASES.  113 

easier  than  to  be  a  respectable  lawi/e?'^  *'  The  wolf  [being]  at  bay,  the  dogs  barked 
the  more."  "  What  more  could  they  do,  a  yonth  [being]  their  leader."  "  My 
duty  as  [being]  her  instructor.''''  "  His  nomination,  as  [to  be]  bishop  J^Gerraan,  '  als 
Bischof  zu  sein'="a8  bishop  to  be],  was  confirmed."  By  a  more  strained  supply  of 
words,  Kule  7th  may  be  applied  in  the  last  two  examples  :  "  My  duty,  considered 
as  being  her  mstructor^s^^  [duty].  "  His  nomination,  considered  as  to  be  the  fti«A- 
(>p'5"  [nomination],  &c. 

By  carefully  examining  the  foregoing  examples,  the  student  can  observe  that 
the  phrases  having  substantives  used  absolutely,  ai-e  but  abridged  expressions  for 
clauses  beginning  with  when,  while,  since,  because,  or  inasmuch  as,  &c. ;  and  that 
when  they  are  converted  into  clauses,  they  become  nominatioes  according  to  Kule 
1st  or  7th. 

The  early  tendency  of  our  language  rather  was,  to  express  substantives  used  absolutely, 
in  the  objective  case,  according  to  the  analogy  of  Greek  and  Latin;  and  Milton  wrote,  "  Hiin 
[being]  destroyed,  or  won  to  what  may  work  his  utter  loss."  But  modern  custom  is  de- 
cidedly in  favor  of  the  nominative. 

?  A  noun  of  the  first  or  the  second  person,  is  never  used  as  the  subject  of 
a  verb. 

Ex. — "I  William  Smith  believe,"  &c.  "Children,  obey  your  parents."  Be- 
lieve agrees  with  /,  as  its  nominative  ;  and  obey  with  ye,  or  you,  understood. 


?  164.  The  possessive  case  denotes  an  object  to  which  some- 
thing belongs  or  pertains. 

The  word  in  the  possessive  case  may  denote  the  originator,  or  the  first 
owner,  or  the  full  owner,  or  a  partial  owner,  or  a  temporary  owner,  or  an 
intended  owner,  or  the  whole  object  comprising  the  thing  possessed  as  a 
part.  The  other  substantive  may  denote  a  material  object,  a  quality,  an 
action,  or  a  state, 

Ex. — "  Irving's  works  ;  Harper's  Ferry:  my  horse;  my  father;  my  country; 
my  cup  and  saucer  ;  men's  and  boys'  boots  lor  sale  here  ;  my  head;  my  sufferings." 
"John's  brother — happiness — haste — running — sleeping."  "  Nature's  gifts."  "  He 
bought  a  place  in  Boone's  settlement,  called  Kemper's  farm."  "  The  master's 
slave  and  the  slave's  master."  "Ambition's  rise  may  be  virtue's  fall."  "  The  lily's 
beauty."     "  India's  coral  strand."     "  John's  head  is  large." 

?  165.  The  possessive  case  of  every  noun  not  ending  iu  the 
sound  of  5,  is  indicated  by  annexing  's, 

Ex. — "  Harry's  slate  ;  the  children's  books ;  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progrests  ;  for 
the  Atridae's  sake."  The '«  is  a  contraction  of  the  old  possessive  sign,  e«  or  i« ; 
as,  *'  The  kingis  crowne  ;"  "  In  widdowes  habite." — Chaucer. 

?  166.  To  plurals  ending  in  s,  only  the  apostrophe  (')  is  added; 
and  to  nouns  of  the  singular  number,  ending  in  the  sound  of  «,  'a 
is  added,  but  sometimes  the  apostrophe  only. 

Ex. — '■'•Boys''  sports;"  '■'•Mechanics'  Bank."  '■'■  Charles'' s  affairs." — Preseott. 
"Louis's  reign." — Macaulay.  "Mr.  Brooks's  integrity." — E.  Eoerett.  "King 
James's  Bible." — Geo.  P.  Marsh.  "  Brookes's  translation." — Td.  "  Morris  and 
Willis's  Office."— A".  P.  Willis.  "The  title  of  Philhps's  dictionary."— «/".  ^.  Wor- 
cester. "  Confucius's  system." — Oxford  Prof essar :  En^nd.  "Some  of  ^schy- 
las's  and  Euripides's  plays  open  in  this  manner." — Blair^s  Rhetoric.  "  Demos- 
theues's  life." — lb.  "  From  Stiles's  pocket  into  Nokes's." — Hudibras.  "  Dennis's 
Works." — Pope.  "  Miss's  fine  lunardi." — Burns.  "Adonis's  death." — Mrs.  Brawn- 
ing.  "  In  Kin^  James'  Version." — B.  G.  White.  "In  the  Countess's  speech." — 
Id.  "  BuUions"  Grammar." — Bullions.  "  Sanders'  Series  of  Readers." — Sanders. 
"  Davies'  Mathematics." — Davies. 

The  phrases  "For  conscience'  sake,"  "For  goodness'  sake,"  "  For  Jesus' 
sake,"  are  rather  idiomatic  exceptions  than  fair  illustrations  of  a  general  principle. 
It  has  been  said  that  the  possessive  s  may  be  omitted,  when  each  of  the  last  two 
syllables  of  the  possessive  word  begins  with  an  «-80und,  and  the  next  word  also  be- 
gins with  an  s-sound  ;  ae,  "  Augustas'  speech." 


114  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. —  CASES. 

In  poetry,  when  the  singular  ends  in  a  hissing  sound,  the  s  may  be  used  or 
omitted  to  suit  the  poet's  convenience;  but  in  prose,  I  think  it  should  gen- 
erally bo  used  where  it  is  omitted.  If  not  too  many  hissing  sounds  come  to- 
gether, and  if  the  possessive  s  would  not  be  too  far  removed  from  an  accented 
syllable,  it  should  doutbless  be  used ;  and  in  other  cases,  of  is  probably  always 
preferable.  People  do  not  hesitate  to  write,  "  The  horse's  heels;"  "  The  young 
prince's  father."  And,  if  sound  is  to  determine  the  use  or  the  omission  of  the  5, 
I  can  not  see  why  many  other  words  are  less  entitled  to  the  s  than  such  words 
as  these.  Few  full  possessives  would  be  harsher  or  heavier  than  such  plural* 
words  as  glasses,  carcasses,  atlases,  duchesses,  actresses,  &c.,  which  nobody  hes' 
tates  to  use  when  needed.  Besides,  the  s  is  often  needed  to  make  the  sense  clear. 
"Watt's  works"  and  "Watts'  works"  are  intelligible  only  to  the  eye,  and 
should  be  '•  Watt's  works"  and  "Watts's  works."  I  can  not  concur  with  Dr. 
Bullions,  in  the  propriety  of  omitting  the  s  in  written  language,  but  retaining  it 
in  spoken.  Let  language  be  written  as  it  is  spoken ;  at  least,  let  us  not  intro- 
duce any  more  anomalies  in  this  respect. 

A  harsh  possessive  may  often  be  avoided  by  converting  it  into  an  adjective,  or 
by  usin:T  qf.  "A  ibx's  tail"=A  fox  tail ;  "  Blinker  Hill"  is  now  more  commonly 
used  than  "Banker's  Hill ;"  and  "  Lucas  Place"  is  q^uite  as  intelligible  as  "  Lu- 
cas's Place;"  "Hastings'  trial"  or  "Hastings's  trial"=The  trial  of  Hastings. 
"Socrates's  life  and  death"=The  life  and  death  of  Socrates;  "  John's  brother's 
wife's  8ister"=The  sister  of  John's  brother's  wife.  But  "  A  summer's  day"  is 
not  necessarily  equivalent  to  "A  summer  day:"  nor  does  of  always  imply  posses- 
sion ;  as,  "  A  spring  of  clear  water  ;"  "  To  have  some  idea  of  the  subject." 

?  161.  When  two  or  more  consecutive  words,  taken  together,  are 
used  to  denote  but  one  possessor,  or  when  the  same  object  belongs 
to  several  in  common,  the  possessive  sign  is  usually  annexed  but 
once,  and  immediately  before  the  name  of  the  object  possessed,  but 
not  always  to  the  word  in  the  possessive  case. 

Ex. —  "William  Henry  Harrison's  election;"  "Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria's 
government;"  "The  Bishop  of  Landafl''s  residence  ;"  "  At  Hall's,  the  baker." 
"  The  captain  of  the  Fulton's  wife  died  yesterday."  Plere  captain  is  in  the  posses- 
Bive  case,  governed  by  wife  ;  and  Fulton  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  oJ\  "The 
Duke  of  Wellington's  achievements."  Here  Duhe  of  Wellingtori's  may  be  parsed 
as  one  noun,  so  also  raiy  Bishop  of  La,ndiW''s,  and  rnost  such  expressions,  "  Bar- 
ton, Hutchinson,  and  Spotswood's  store."  Here  Birton,  Hutchinson,,  and  Spots- 
wood's,  are  each  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by  store.  "  Barton's,  Hutcbin- 
son's,  and  Spotswood's  store"  =-Barton'8  store,  Hutchinson's  store,  and  Spotswood'a 
store  ;  or,  Barton^s  and  Hutchinson's  are  governed  by  store  understood. 

The  various  sorts  of  terms  or  phrases  that  may  denote  possessors,  and  the  best 
modes  of  expressing  the  sense  of  the  possessive  case  wherever  diflB.culties  present 
themselves,  may  be  briefly  noticed  as  follows  : — 

Monosyllables  ending  with  the  sound  of  s, — 's  ;  dissyllahles, — 's  or  of, 
rarely  ' ;  words  of  more  syllables, — of,  rarely  ',  or  else  's,  when  the  last 
syllable  thus  formed  is  not  too  far  from  the  primary  or  the  secondary 
accent. 

Ex.— " Sparks's  Washington;"  " Edwards's  West  Indies;"  "The  landing  of 
Cornwallis;"  "  Euphrates'  banks." 

Compound  names, — sign  to  the  last  word.    "  Edward  Everett's  Works." 

Complex  names,  or  single  terms   with   single  adjuncts, — sign    to  the 

last  word,  or  use  of;  with  adjuncts  or  compound  adjuncts, — of. 

Ex. — "  The  Duke  of  Wellington's  residence  ;"  "  The  Report  of  the  Secretary  of 

the  Navy ;"  "  The  wife  of  a  member  of  Congress ;"  "  An  Act  of  the  Legislature  of 

the  State  of  New  York." 

Apposition,  the  two  terms  used  like  one  name, — sign  at  the  end  ;  priu- 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. CASES.  115 

cipal  term,  wilh  explanatory  part  short, — sign  to  either,  but  not  to  both ; 
explanatory  part  long,  or  consisting  of  two  or  more  nouns, — sign  to  the 
first,  or  use  of. 

Ex. — "  The  Emperor  Napoleon's  grave ;"  "  At  Smith's,  the  bookseller  ;"  "  At 
Smith  the  bookseller's;"  "Mr.  Crawford's  Report,  the  Secretary  of  the  Trea- 
sury;" better,  "The  Report  of  Mr.  Crawford,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  ;"  "The 
psahns  of  David,  the  kin^,  priest,  aad  poet  of  the  Jews  ;"  "  From  the  death  of  Ed- 
ward the  Third  to  the  rei^n  of  Queeu  Elizabeth ;"  "  Tiie  residence  of  George  Clin- 
ton, ex-governor  of  New  York,  and  vice-president  of  the  United  States." 

Series  of  terms ^  and  common  possession, — sign  to  the  last  term;  but 
not  common  possession, — sign  to  each  term. 

Ex. — " Bolton,  Dixon,  and  Glover's  farm;"  "  Bolton's,  Dixon's,  and  Glover's 
farm."  "  Bolton,  Dixon,  and  Glover's  farms,"  rather  implies  joint  or  common  pos- 
session. "  Bolton's,  Dixon's,  and  Glover's  farms,"  implies  that  each  man  owns  two 
or  more  farms. 


?  168.  The  objective  case  is  the  case  of  a  substantive  used 
as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  of  a  preposition. 

Ex. — "Mary  plucked  a  fresh  rose."  "I  saw  Mary  pluckin&  a  fresh  rose." 
"  Mary  went  to  pluck  a  fresh  rosey  "  A  clear  stream  from  the  mounbain  flowed 
DOWN  the  valley.''''  "  WJiom  do  you  see?"  "I  saw  him  gathering  apples.^''  "I 
came  to  heab  hiin,  or  wmi  the  expectatmi  of  hearing  Ai?/i."  TLie  word  in  the  ob- 
jective case  can  be  readily  found  by  asking  a  question  with  whoin  or  what  after  the 
verb  or  preposition.  Thus,  "  The  soldiers  carried  their  bleeding  companion  to  the 
river."     Carried  whom  ?     Oompanion.    To  what  ?    Jiiver. 

1  169.  The  object  may  be  a  verbal  noun,  or  consist  of  an  entire 
phrase  or  clause. 

Ex. — "  My  brother  likes  to  study,  but  I  like  running  and  jump'mg  better  than 
studying.''''  "He  knew  to  build  the  lofty  rhyme."  "  You  do  not  consider  Aoi« 
little  most  people  care  for  wJiat  is  not  to  their  interest.^''  "I  ordered  the  horse  to  he 
brought.''''  To  determine  whether  a  verb  followed  by  a  clause  or  a  phrase  is  transi- 
tive, we  must  consider  whether  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  put  in  the  place  of  the  phrase 
or  clause,  would  be  governed  by  the  verb  or  preposition. 

As  an  entire  clause  may  be  the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition,  so  may  an 
entire  phrase  beginning  with  a  substantive  followed  by  an  infinitive.  The 
governing  word  does  not  govern  the  noun  or  pronoun  alone,  yet  it  has  sufficient 
influence  over  it,  as  a  part  of  its  object,  (a  part  otherwise  uncontroUed.)  to  de- 
ter i  nine  its  case ;  and  this  influence  is  sufficient  for  the  application  of  Kule  4th 
or  5th. 

Ex.—"  Let  me  finish  the  problem:''  "  I  desire  you  to  go?''  "  I  supposed  him  to 
he  your  brother.''''  "He  commanded  the  hone  to  he  brought:''  "One  word  is  too 
often  profaned  for  me  toprofane  it:'' 

The  effort  has  been  made  several  times,  to  implant  from  the  Latin  into  the  English, 
a  Rule  for  "  the  subject  of  the  infinitive ;"  but.  most  grammarians  have  discarded  the 
innovation  without  even  deigning  to  give  it  a  critical  notice  or  a  formal  rcycction.  I  too  in- 
cline to  reject  it.  "  Rule  XI.  The  infinitive  hau  sometimes  a  subject  in  tlie  objective  case." — 
Butler's  Grammar.  Ojbjeotions  : — 1.  The  English  language  never  allows  an  object  before 
an  infinitive,  unless  there  is  at  the  same  time  a  governing  word  before  the  object ;  but 
tlie  Latin  sometimes  allows  an  intransitive  verb  before  such  an  object,  and  therefore  dif- 
fers from  onr  language,  and  requires  a  Rule  for  the  subject  of  the  infinitive.  Wo  can  say, 
"  Gaudco  te  valere  ;"  but  not,  "  I  rejoice  thee  to  be  well."  2.  Though  Mr.  Butler's  few  ex- 
amples are  plain  and  plausible  enough,  as  examples  made  or  selected  for  a  Rule  usually  are, 
yet  it  is  impossible  to  tell,  in  every  instance,  whether  the  object  should  be  parsed  as  the 
"subject"  of  the  infinitive  or  as  the  "  object"  of  the  preceding  verb.  3.  The  participlii  has 
sometimes  as  good  a  right  to  such  a  subject  as  the  infinitive  ;  thus,  "  I  saw  the  sun  ^''[l 
and  "I  saw  the  sua  rising"  differ  no  more  than  "  The  sua  rises''  and  "  The  sun  is  rising.'* 

?  lYO.  A  passive  verb,  since  it  converts  its  object  into  its  subject, 
can  not  have  an  object. 


116  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. CASES. 

?  lYl.  A  few  verbs  may  have  two  different  objects  at  once,  pro- 
vided they  can  govern  them  as  well  separately. 

Ex. — "  He  asked  me  a  question"="  He  asked  me"  and  "  He  askod  a  ques- 
tion ;"  but  "  He  gave  me  a  question,"  is  not  equivalent  to  "  He  gave  me"  and  "  Ho 
gave  a  question." 

"When  a  verb  governing  two  object3  is  made  passive,  either  object,  but  not 
both,  may  be  made  the  nominative.  The  other  object  remains  in  the  objective 
case ;  but  as  a  passive  verb  can  not  govern  an  object,  the  other  object,  if  it  de- 
notes the  person,  is  governed  by  a  preposition  expressed  or  understood  ;  and  if 
it  denotes  the  thing,  it  may  be  referred  to  Rule  6th. 

Ex. — "  My  mother  taught  me  arithmetic"=I  was  taught  arithmetic  by  my 
mother,  or,  Arithmetic  was  taught  (to)  me  by  my  mother.  Observe  the  diference : 
"  James  struck  him*  a  blow*;''''  "James  wrote  Tii/m^  a  letter*;''''  "  James  called  Am* 
his/rie^i'^." 

'?  172.  The  o5>Jective  case  is  the  case  of  a  substantive  used 
without  a  governing  word,  and  limiting  or  modifying  like  an  ad- 
verb or  adjunct  some  other  word. 

Ex. — "I  do  not  care  a  straw  f^  Care  not  how  much?  "The  wall  was  1200 
feet  long,  and  40  feet  high."  How  long?  how  higli  ?  "  It  was  richly  worth  a  dol- 
lar.'''' Worth  liow  mucTi?  "  We  went  Aome."  Whither?  "  The  slippered  pan- 
taloon, a  v)orld  too  wide." — Shak.  How  much  too  wide  ?  "  He  is  head  and  heels  in 
debt."  To  what  extent?  "She  walks  [like]  a  queen.''''  "  Now  he  trips  a  ^fltay. 
and  now  he  struts  a  lord.'''' — Pope.  "  He  wore  his  coat  cloak  fashion^  How  ? 
"He  is  nothing  too  good  for  such  conduct."  "  I  was  taught  grammar.''''  Taught 
as  to  wliat  ?  Sometimes  a  substantive  may  be  referred  to  the  foregoing  principle, 
or  parsed  at  once  as  an  adverb.  Some  grammarians  prefer  to  consider  such  ex- 
pressions elliptical,  and  to  supply  a  preposition,  which  can  generally  be  done  with- 
out straining  the  matter  very  far. 

?  173.  There  are  expressions,  however,  obviously  elliptical. 

Ex.— "  Dr.  Eush,  No.  340,  Pearl  Street,  Philadelphia,  Penn."=7b  Dr.  Rush, 
at  No.  340,  on  Pearl  Street,  in  Philadelphia,  in  Pennsylvania.  "Jan.  1st,  1860"= 
On  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  1860.  "  Ah  me!"=Ah,  what  has  hap- 
pened to  me  !  So,  "  Me  miserable !"  or  else  it  may  be  considered  simply  a  Latin- 
ism,  used  by  Milton  for  the  nominative  absolute. 


Same  Ca§e. 

?  174.  A  substantive  that  does  not  bring  another  person  or  thing 
into  the  sentence,  and  is  used  merely  for  explanation,  emphasis,  or 
description,  must  be  in  the  same  case  as  the  one  denoting  the  person 
or  thing. 

Ex. — "  CoMPANT,  villainous  eompa^v,  has  been  the  ruin  of  me."  "  I  Joseph 
Walter,  a  jtbstiee  of  the  peace,  certify,"  &c.  "  Cortes,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico, 
was  a  brave  man.''''  "  I,  also  /,  am  an  American.''''  "  The  Emperor  N'apoleon'a 
grave."  "  This  book  is  John's,  ray  classmate.''''  "It  was  /."  "  We  will  go  oti,r- 
seVses.''''  "They  crowned  him  ^*«^."  " His  purse  was  M'«tZi!A,  his  word  a  Jo»dI." 
"  Will  sneaks  a  scrivener,  an  exceeding  hnaoe.''^  The  one  substantive  may  be  called 
the  pi'incipal  term  ;  and  the  other,  the  explanatory  term. 

?  175.  Frequently,  the  explanatory  term  is  predicated  or  assumed 
of  the  other,  by  means  of  some  neuter,  intransitive,  or  passive  verb. 
The  explanatory  term  is  then  usually  called  a  predicate-substantive. 
The  verb,  if  any  other  than  6e,  shows  how  the  title  or  character- 
istic is  acquired  or  made  known. 

Ex. — "  The  world  is  but  astaae.  and  all  the  men  and  women  [are]  merely  ptoy- 
«•«."    "My  friend  was  nppomted  judge.''^    "Tom  struts  a  soldier.''''    "  The  soldiers 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS.— CASES.  11*7 

Bent  a  petition  requesting  him  to  become  their  leader — a  petition  for  him  to  become 
their  leader.''''  Such  a  predicate-substantive  after  verbs  not  finite,  is  in  the  nomi- 
native case  whenever  there  is  no  preceding  object  to  control  its  case. 

?  176.  When  not  attached  to  the  other  term  by  means  of  a  verb, 
the  explanatory  term  is  said  to  be  in  apposition.,  and  is  called  the 
appositive. 

Ex. — "  Webster,  the  orator  and  statesman.,  was  related  to  Webster  the  lexi- 
cographer.'''' "  At  Smith's,  the  bookseller.''''  "  A  firth,  or  frith V  "  As  a  state&man, 
he  had  great  ability." 

Predication  and  apposition  are  fundamentally  the  same.  When  the  explana- 
tory term  is  predicated,  it  seems  to  be  first  made  known  that  such  an  attribute 
t)elong3  to  the  person  or  thing.  Afterwards  we  use  apposition, ;  or  when  the 
attribute  is  already  well  known  or  easily  perceived,  and  we  wish  to  assert  some- 
thing else.  Thus,  "  Mr.  Jones  was  a  saddler,  but  now  he  is  a  merchant.''''  After- 
wards we  may  say,   "  Mr.  Jones  the  merchant,  is  a  bankrupt." 

?  Apposition  frequently  enables  us  to  distinguish  different  per- 
sons of  the  same  name,  by  means  of  their  profession,  occupation,  or 
character. 

?  177.  Sometimes  two  objects  follow  certain  verbs :  the  one 
simply  denoting  the  person  or  thing;  and  the  other,  as  affected 
by  the  act. 

Ex.—"  They  named  7ier  Mary.''''     "  They  elected  him  Mayor.'''' 

That  the  latter  substantive  is  rather  in  apposition  with  the  former  than  governed  by  the 
verb,  seems  evident  tome  from  the  following  consideration:  "  They  named  her  Mary" — 
Make  her  the  nominative,  and  Mir  a  at  once  becomes  a  nominative  too,  so  as  to  agree  with 
it;  as,  "/S/ie  was  named  3/ar^."  But,  "  Ho  taught  me  grammar" — Make  we  the  nomina- 
tive, and  grammar  still  remains  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "/was  taught  grammar.''^ 

?  178.  The  explanatory  term  sometimes  precedes  the  other,  or 
the  verb. 

Ex. — ^^  Child  of  the  Sun,  refulgent  Summer  comes."  "  Who  is  he  ?"  "  A  man 
he  was  to  all  the  country  dear."  "  Who  is  his  friend?"  This  last  is  an  ambiguous 
expression.  If  friend  is  the  explatiatory  term,  the  sentence  means,  "  Is  any  one 
friendly  to  him  ?  has  he  any  friends  at  all  ?"  If  uh/)  is  explanatory,  the  meaning 
is,  "  What  sort  of  man  is  his  friend  ?" 

?  179.  It  is  not  always  necessary  that  the  explanatory  term  should 
agree  with  the  other  in  any  thing  else  than  case. 

Ex. — "  Our  liberties,  our  greatest  Uessinq,  we  shall  not  give  up  so  easily." 
"  His  meat  was  locusts  and  wild  honey.''''  "  l^es  was  /to  the  blind,  and  feet  to  the 
lame." 

?  180.  The  whole  is  sometimes  again  mentioned  by  a  distributive 
word,  or  by  words  denoting  the  parts;  and  sometimes  the  separate 
persons  or  things  are  summed  up  in  one  emphatic  word  denoting 
the  whole. 

Ex. — "They  bore  each  a  banner."  "The  words  pleasure  and  pain.''''  "The 
two  love  each  [loves  tlie]  other."  (See  Pronouns,  p.  100.)  "Time,  labor,  money. 
all  were  lost."  Or  else  Rule  7th  may  be  applied  to  time,  labor,  and  money,  end 
Eule  1st  to  all. 

"  But  those  that  sleep,  and  think  not  of  their  sins. 
Pinch  THEM,  arms,  Ugs,  backs,  shoulders,  sides,  and  shins.'''' — Shakespeare. 
To  this  head,  also  such  expressions  as  "  The  stars  disappeared  one  by  one," 
"  They  perished  man  by  man,"  mav  sometimes  be  more  properlv  referred.— See 
Adverb,  p.  208.  '  r    r     . 


118  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS, CASES. 

?  181.  The  principal  or  the  explanatory  terra  may  be  any  ordi- 
nary noun,  a  verbal  noun,  a  pronoun,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

Ex. — "  0  Music,  sphere-descended  maid.''''  '■'It  was  mj p^'ule  [  to  govern  justly.'* 
'■'■Promising  is  not  paying,''''  '■'■It  is  an  admitted  truth,  \  that  honesty  is  the  test 
mlioy.''''  '^  Who  is  A^  I"'  "  The  phrase,  \  '  not  at  all\  is  an  idiom.''''  "  Oar  doom  is, 
^  Earth  to  earth,  and  dust  to  d/ast  P  "  '•'■t  resolved  to  pay  as  I  go, — a  resolution  whicli 
I  have  ever  kept." 

?  182.  The  explanatory  term  is  sometimes  cut  off  from  tlie  other 
by  a  governing  word,  and  may  then  be  different  in  case. 

Ex. — '*  In  the  moxth  of  September.''''  "  Yonder  is  the  city  of  St.  Louis.''''  "  Ho 
was  sent  with  us  for  a  guide.''^     "  I  hurt  myself.'''' 

?  183.  The  explanatory  term  is  essentially  an  adjective  element. 

Ex. — "He  was  a  Aero"=He  was  Aewic.  "  Every  heart  was  yo_y"=  Every  heart 
was  joyful.  *'  They  called  him  a  patriot  ;"  "  They  called  him  patriotic.^''  '■'■Shig- 
g'lsh  in  youth,  he,"  &c.=A  sluggard  in  youth,  he,  '&c. 


Ca«<es  of   Projiomsis. 

For  the  Declension  of  Pronouns,  see  p.  8. 

?  Oars,  yours,  ho's,  and  theirs,  should  always,  and  inine  and  thine 
should  generally,  be  considered  equivalent  to  the  other  possessive 
23ronoun  and  the  name  of  the  object  possessed,  and  then  be  parsed 
accordingly. 

Ex. — "  He  ate  his  apple,  you  ate  yours  [your  apple],  and  I  ate  mine''^  [my  ap- 
ple]. Yours  is  not  iioverned  by  a  noun  understood,  for  the  noun  could  not  be  put 
after  it ;  but  it  is  equivalent  to  your  and  a  noun. 

In  familiar  language,  these  words  are  sometimes  used  in  a  peculiar  idiomatic 
way:  thus,  "  This  law  of  yours,"  may  mean,  "  This  law  of  your  laws;"  but,  "Tliis 
head  of  yours,"  "  That  ftvther  of  yours,"  "  Tliis  poor  self  of  mine,"  are  not  equi- 
valent to  "This  head  of  your  heads,"  "This  father  of  your  fathers,"  "  This  poor 
self  of  my  selves."  Perhaps  we  may,  in  parsing,  treat  such  phrases  thus  :  "  This 
head  of  yours"  =-"  This  head  of  yowr  possession  f^  or  in  some  other  similar  way. 

?  184.  Before  vowel  sounds  or  the  aspirate  A,  mine  and  thine  are 
sometimes  preferred,  in  the  solemn  style,  to  my  and  thy. 

Ex. — "  Blot  out  all  mine  iniquities." — Bible.     '•'■Thine  altar." —  WMttier. 

?  185.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  used  only  in  the  nomi- 
native and  the  objective  case  ;  and  for  both  they  have  the  same  form. 

?  186.  To  express  emphatic  distinction  in  the  possessive  case,  we 
use  the  word  own  instead  of  self  or  selves. 

Ex. — "  Let  every  man  attend  to  his  own  business,  and  every  woman  goflsip 
about  Ae;*  ow»  faults."  "  Selfish  men  always  take  care  of  themselves,  and  their 
own,  property." 

?  In  the  objective  case,  the  simple  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  for 
the  compound,  especially  in  poetry. 

Ex. — "  I  thither  went,  and  laid  me  down  on  the  green  bank." — Milton.  "  I  set 
me  down  a  pensive  hour  to  spend." — Goldsmith. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  compound  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second 
persons  take  the  possessive  simple  pronoun ;  and  those  of  the  third  person,  the 
objective. 

?  Who  and  which  are  declined,  and  have  the  same  form  in  both 
numbers. 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. EXERCISES.  119 

?  187.  Whose  may  be  used  as  the  possessive  oUvhich  or  that,  when 
needed. 

Ex. — "  A  parly  whose  leaders  are  corrupt"=A  party  of  wliicli  the  leaders  are 
corrupt.     "  It  is  the  eame  man  whose  horse  we  caught." 

?  188.  What,  that,  and  as,  are  used  in  two  cases  only  ;  the  nomi- 
native and  the  objective. 

?  189.    What  is  never  changed  in  form. 

?  1 90.  What,  used  as  a  common  relative  pronoun,  and  other  ex- 
pressions of  the  same  kind,  may  have  a  twofold  construction  in  re- 
gard to  case. 

?  This  is  the  substance  of  Kule  8th,  which  applies  to  what,  its  compounds, 
to  some  nouns  preceded  by  such  adjectives  as  what  or  which,  and  to  any  other 
relative  whenever  the  sense  requires  two  cases,  and  the  FORM  of  the  word  does  NOT 
prevent  it  from  being  adapted  to  express  both. 

S>iould  Rule  8th  seem  &  peculiar  one,  we  answer  that  it  applies  to  a  class  of  peculiar  ex- 
pressions. There  is  not  room  here  to  present  an  array  of  arf^uments  in  favor  of  our  position. 
Suffice  it  to  say,  that  we  endeavor  to  accept  the  languaj^a,  so  far  as  possible,  as  we  find  it ; 
and  that  what  such  expressions  were  in  former  or  ancient  times,  is  no  proof  of  what  they  are 
now.  There  was  a  time  when  every  steamboat-engine  had  a  balance-wheel,  but  now  the 
water-wheel  performs  the  office  of  that  wheel  too ;  and  who  would  think  of  putting  a  balance- 
wheel  into  a  drawing  of  such  an  ejigine,  when  the  wheel  is  no  longer  needed  or  used?  Be- 
jiides,  the  kindred  words,  when,  where,  and  while,  are  usually  parsed  as  modifying  a  word  in 
«uch  of  two  dififurent  clauses ;  and  participial  nouns  are  frequently  parsed  as  performing  a 
double  office.     Furthermore,  the  parsing  is  much  simplified, 

1  191.  When  what  is  interrogative  or  responsive,  it  is  needed  in  but  one  case, 
depending  in  construction  on  some  word  in  its  own  clause.  When  the  form  of 
the  relative  prevents  it  from  furnishing  two  cases,  it  must  take  the  form  required 
for  its  own  clause,  and  a  suitable  antecedent  must  be  supplied  for  the  other 
clause ;  but  then  the  eoer  or  soever  must  be  omitted.  See  Compound  Rela- 
tives, p.  98. 

?  Reuiember,  in  parsing,  that  the  antecedent  never  relates  to  a  word 
in  the  relative  clause,  but  frequently  refers  to  one  beyond  it. 

Ex. — "  The  boy  who  trifles  away  his  time,  will  be  wretched  in  manhood."  Boy 
is  in  the  nominative  case,  not  to  trifies,  bat  to  will  be. 

192.    One,  other,  and  another,  are  declined  like  nouns. 


EXERCISES. 
Examples  to  be  Analyzed  and  Parsed. 

Bxrse  the  nouns  and  ike  pronouns : — 

1. 

A  fisherman's"  boat^  carried  the  passengers*  to  a  small  island^  iJTapo- 
leon  Bonaparte  defeated  the  allies  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost  and  Young's  Night  Thoughts  are  great  poems'.  Fifty  painted 
Indians  from  Minnesota  went  down  the  Mississippi,  on  the  Black  Hawk. 
Education  expands  and  elevates  the  mind.  Rehgion  refines  and  purifies 
the  affections.     Spices  are  brought  from  the  East  Indies. 

2. 

I  will  use  John's  book,  and  you  may  use  Mary's.  Great  hypocrisy 
characterized  a  part  of  Louis  XIV's  reign.  John's  wife's  sister  is  in  town. 
I  have  read  Charles  de  Moor's  Remorse,  and  the  Introduction  to  Loomis's* 


120  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

Legendre's  Geometry.  The  literati  of  Europe  are  famous  for  profound  eru- 
dition. Mexico  lies  between  the  Pacific  Ocean^  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico\ 
The  little  company  then  sailed  to  the  Azores.  I  have  just  heard  a  lecture 
on  the  usefuP.  Rome  from  her  throne  of  beauty  ruled  the  world.  The 
clouds''^  dispersing,  we  renewed  our  journey.  Scotland^!  there  is  magic  in 
the  sound. 

Prefer,  my  son^,  the  toils  of  Hercules, 
To  dalliance,  banquets,  and  ignoble  ease. 
3. 

I'  will  never  forsake  you^  We  sjbould  always  prefer  our'  duty  to  our 
pleasure.  He  is  not  content  with  his  situation.  I  seated  myself  next"  to 
the  window.  Joseph  bought  the  book  for  himself*  *^  Man'^!  know  thy- 
self»  *  4 :  all  wisdom  centres  there.  The  Indians  often  paint  themselves. 
Tiie  party  reposed  themselves  on  the  shady  lavvn. 

4 

The  poor  widow  lost  her^  *  ^  only  son.  John  and  James  know  their«  *  » 
lessons.  Neither  John  nor  James  knows  his»  *  ^  lesson.  Where  confidence 
has  been  destroyed,  it  seldom  revives.  The  deer  waved  its  branchy  head. 
It  is  wicked  to  scoffs  at  rehgion.  It  is  too  early  for  flowers.  It  happened 
on  a  lovely  summer's  day.  It  rains.  It  went  hard  with  him.  She  is 
handsome,  and  she  knows  it"^^  My  heart  beats  yet,  but  hers''  I  can 
not  feel  I 

6.  Antecedeiit  Expressed. 

The  man  who°  *  ^  neglects  his*  *  *  business,  will  soon  be  without  busi- 
ness. That*  man  is  enslaved  who  can  not  govern  himself  How  beautiful 
are  yonder  willows,  which  overshadow  the  little  river !  Sarah  has  plucked 
the  prettiest  rose  that* ''' '  bloomed  in  the  garden.  The  traveler  described 
very  accurately  such  things  as  he  remembered.  She  has  already  as  many 
troubles  as  she  can  bear.  The  sister  has  the  same  traits  of  character  as** 
her  brothers. 

6.  Antecedent  not  Expressed. 

Many  blessings  has  the  world  derived  from  those  whose  origin  v/as 
humble.  Assist  such<^  as  need  thy  assistance.  Who^  has  not  virtue,  is 
not  truly  wise.  I  saw  whom^  I  wanted  to  see,  I  love  whoever'  loves 
me.  Whoever^  violates  this  rule,  shall  pay  a  fine.  Whomsoever^  you 
send,  I  will  cheerfully  instruct. 

I  remember  what*  was  said.  He  reads  whatever^  is  instructive.  Fops 
are  more  attentive  to  what^  is  showy,  than  mindful  of  what®  is  necessaiy. 
Whatever  purifies  the  heart,  also  fortifies  it.  Whatever  he  found,  he  took. 
Whatsoever  he  doeth,  shall  prosper.  Whatever  money®  I  had,  I  spent. 
Conscience  wakes  the  bitter  memory  of  ^what'  he^  was,  what  he  is,  and 
what  must  be. 

8.  \ 

Who^  first  crossed  the  Alps  ? — HannibaP.  What  constitutes  a  State  ? 
My  countrymen,  oh  what"  a  fall  was  there  I  Whaf  means  this  martial 
array?  Which  belongs  to  you ?  Do  you  know  « who' said  so?  1  know 
not  who  said  so.  Who  can  tell  «whom*  he  meant?  Whaf  is  it'  that*** 
you  want  ?  I  never  heard  what®  it  was  that  brought  him  here.  What 
country  is  better  than  ours^  ? — None'.  Which  man  was  hurt?  What'" 
man®  but  enters,  dies.  Take  whichever  horse®  you  like.  On  whichsoever 
side  we  cast  our  eyes,  we  saw  nothing  but'*  ruins. 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. EXERCISES.  121 


G-entle  reader,  whoever''  thou^  art,  remember  this.  I  believe  no  other 
author  whatever^"  would  advance  the  same  doctrines.  I  tell  you  whaf, 
my  son,  those  friends  of  ours  have  forgotten  us.  My  son,  whatever"*  the 
world  may  say,  adhere  to  what**  is  right.  Whatever  you  undertake,  do  it 
well.     Whomsoever  he  finds,  him  he  wiU  send. 

10. 

She  took  the  good  ones,  and  left  the  others.  ITbne  are  perfectly  good. 
Mankind  slay  one  another  in  cruel  wars.  They  deemed  each  other* 
oracles'  of  law.  Pity  from  you  is  dearer  than  that  from  another.  Who 
is  there  to  mourn  for  Logan  ?    Not  one. 

11. 
Johnson  the  doctor'  is  a  brother'  of  Johnson  the  lawyer'.  Wait  for 
me  at  Barnum's,  the  barber.  Shakespeare  hved  in  Queen  EUzabeth's 
reign.  The  Misses  Lewis  are  amiable  young  ladies.  Messrs.'  Lucas^  and 
Simonds^  are  bankers  in  St.  Louis.  Ah  1  Warwick,  Warwick,  wert  thou 
as  we  are.  The  Spanish  general  presented  the  young  prince  to  them  as 
their  future  sovereign',  and  as  the  true  heir  to  the  Peruvian  sceptre.  My 
wife,  the  sweet  soother  of  my  cares,  fell  a  victim'  to  despair.  The  inferior 
animals  are  divided  into  five  classes ;  quadrupeds',  fowls,  fishes,  reptiles, 
and  insects.  Officer,  soldier,  friend,  and  foe,  were  all^  shoveled  into  a 
common  grave.  It  was  I,  your  friend,  that**  became  his  protector.  He 
led  the  troops  himself.  She  is  modest  and  virtuous ;  [and  modesty  and 
virtue  are]  qualities  ever  to  be  esteemed. 

12. 

And  all  our  knowledge  is  ourselves*  to  know'.  "  To  be  good  is  to  be 
happy,"  is  a  tiuth'  never  to  be  forgotten  by  those  commencing  the  jour- 
ney of  life.  Far  other  scene  was  Thrasemen6  now.  This  life  is  the  spring- 
time of  eternity, — the  time  to  sow^^  the  seeds  of  woe  or  the  seeds  of  bUss. 
She  walks  [has  become]  a  queen.  Queen'  of  flowers  the  fair  hly  blooms. 
Now,  what'  is  your  text  ?  I  see  you  what'  you  are.  Whom  do  you  take 
him  to  be  ?  He  made  us  wiser^" — made  us  walk^'-* — made  us  scholars'. 
An  elm,  says  the  poet  Holmes,  is  a  forest  waving  on  a  single  tree.  Such  a 
one*  as'  I  was,  this  picture  presents.  Death  is  the  wages  of  sin.  That 
Louis  XIV"  was  crafty,  does  not  make  him  a  great  ruler. 

See  the  bhnd  beggar*  dance''*,  the  cripple  sing, 

The  sot*  a  hero',  lunatic  a  king. — Pope. 

13. 

Friends'*,  'Romans'*,  countrymen'*!  lend  me  your  ears. — Shakespeare. 
Young  ladies,  put  not  your  trust  in  money,  but  put  your  money  in 
trust. —  0.  W.  Holmes. 

His  praise,  ye^  winds^,  that  from  four  quarters  blow. 
Breathe  soft  or  loud  ;  and  wave  your  tops,  ye  pines. — Milton. 
My  friends,  do  they  now  and  then  send 
A  wish  or  a  thought  after  me. —  Cowper. 
To  arms !  they  come !  the  Greek' !  the  Greek  ! — Hallech. 
" Come  back!  come  back  1"  he  cried  in  grief, 
"  Across  this  stormy  water  ; 
And  I'll  forgive  your  Highland  chief, — 

My  daughter!  oh,  my  daughter!" — Camphell. 


122  NOUN^  AND  PRONOUNS. —  EXERCISES. 

14. 

The  sun  having  risen,  we  began  our  journey. 

Bonaparte  being  banished,  peace  was  restored  to  Europe. 

Forth  he  walked,  the  Spirit'^  leading  and  his  deep  thoughts'^. 

He''  being  a  boy'',  the  Indians  spared  him.  He\  being  a  boy^,  was  not 
killed. 

Her  wheel  at  rest,  the  matron  thrills  no  more 
With  treasured  tales,  and  legendary  lore. — Rogers. 

To  be  a  great  historian,  is  easier  than  to  be  a  great  poet. 

His  being  a  foreigner,  should  not  induce  us  to  underrate  him. 

15. 

The  sailors,  in  wandering  over  the  island,  found  several  trees  bearing 
delicious  fruit*.  I  forgot  to  telP  [to]  him  the  story.  Boys  like  to  play*. 
I  was  about  to  express'^  my  opinion,  when  he  spoke  to  suggest'^  to  me  to 
remain*  silent.  I  can  not  permit  him*  to  go''^.  He  taught  us*  arithmetic*, 
reading*,  and  writing*.  He  taught  us  to  cipher,  to  read,  and  to  write. 
He  was  taught  to  walk^'^  on  the  rope.  The  horse  I  bought,  is  five  years 
old.  We  were  taught  arithmetic,  reading,  and  writing.  The  profit  is 
hardly  worth"  the  troubIe^  The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  three  thousand  miles 
wide. 

(ft,)  "Loomts's"  limits  the  meaning,  not  of  "(Jeomeiry,"  but  of  '■'■Legendre's  Oeometni.'" 
(h.)  '•'Hers"  —her  heart,  (c.)  ''■As"  is  the  object  of  Jiave,  understood:  when  the  governing 
word  is  expressed,  "  as"  sliould  be  Utnt.  (d.)  "■Such"  =8uch  persons,  (e.)  "  Wliat  he  was," 
is  a  substantive  clause,  of  the  neuter  gender,  tliird  person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  ob- 
jective case— being  the  object  of  the  preposition  "o/" — according  to  RuleV.  Now  parse  each 
word  as  before.  (/.)  After  "■what"  supply  /  think,  or  something  equivalent,  (.g.)  "■All" 
as  here  used,  is  usually  parsed  as  a  pronoun ;  but  it  may  perhaps  be  as  well  considered  an 
adjective,  (/t.)  '■'■That"  properly  refers  to  '•'It"  as  its  antecedent,  (i.)  Not  Rule  VII,  for  each 
subsequent  term  is  meant  to  be  more  comprehendve.  (j.)  Rule  VII  may  be  applied  to  either 
word ;  but  some  grammarians  think,  better  to  ye,  as  being  the  strengthening  word,  {k.)  A 
noun  is  never  the  subject  of  an  imperative  verb  ;  and  a  pronoun  is  tlie  subject,  only  when  ib 
comes  immediately  after  the  verb  and  is  joined  to  it.  C^.)  Rule  VI 1  is  sometimes  not  inap- 
plicable, and  may  be  preferred. 


Examples  to  be  Corrected. 

All  the  liabilities  to  error  in  regard  to  nouns  and  proaouns,  may  be  reduced 
to  the  following  heads : — 

1.  \.  Usurpation  hy  the  adverb.  2.  Genders.  3.  Persons.  ^.Num- 
bers. 5.  Nominative  case.  6.  Possessive  case.  7.  Objective  case. 
8.  Same  case.     9.  Position  in  regard  to  case. 

n.  1.  Choice  of  pronouns.  2.  Agreement  of  pronouns  with 
antecedents^  in  gender,  person,  and  number.  3.  Position  of  pro- 
noun in  regard  to  antecedent.  4.  Pronoun  inadequate  to  represent 
antecedent.  5.  Inelegant  insertion  of  pronoun.  6.  Inelegant  omis- 
sion of  pronoun.  1.  Relative  pronoun  improperly  used  in  its  con- 
junctive capacity  only. 

j\ouiis  and  Proiiouui!*;. 

1.   Usurpation  by  the  Adverb. 

We  should  avoid  the  inelegant  use  of  adverbs  in  the  place  of  nouns  or 
pronouns. 


NOUNS    AXD    PRONOUNS. EXERCISES.  123 

A  diphthonsc  is  where  two  vowels  are  united  in  one  sound,  — (he  union 
of- —  A  diphthonj?  is  when  two  vowels  are  united  in  one  sound.  Fusion  is 
while  a  solid  is  converted  into  a  liquid  bv  heat.  When  a  letter  or  a  syllable  is 
transposed,  it  is  called  Metathesis.  Tiie  transposition  of  a  letter,  &c.  Personi- 
fication is  when  we  ascribe  life,  sentiments,  or  actions,  to  inanimate  beings,  or 
to  abstract  qualities.  — is  a  figure  hy  which —  A  deed  of  trust  is  a  deed  where 
the  lender  has  power  to  sell  to  secure  himself,  — is  a  deed  giving —  Man- 
slaughter is  where  a  man  is  killed  without  malice  or  previous  ill-will.  He  drew 
up  a  petition  where  he  too  freely  represented  his  own  merits.  The  occasions 
where  a  man  has  the  v\%\\t  to  take  the  law  into  his  own  hands,  are  but  few. 
The  manner  how  it  was  done,  I  never  could  ascertain.  The  plural  of  these 
Douns  is  formed  as  in  the  languages  whence  they  are  derived. 

2.  Genders. 

Substantives  should  be  properly  used  in  geader,  according  to  the  sex, 
the  general  nature  of  the  object,  or  the  particular  view  of  the  author. 

a.  Unworthy  objects  should  not  be  personified  as  male  or  female. 

h.  Care  should  be  taken  to  ascribe  to  a  personified  object  the  most  apr- 
propriate  sex. 

She  is  administrator.  The  marquess  was  celebrated  for  her  wit  and  beauty. 
He  was  married  to  a  most  beautiful  Jew.  She  was  the  tallest  woman  I  ever 
saw:  she  was  really  a  giant.  Mrs.  Lydia  Smith,  the  editor,  lately  turned  actor, 
at  Memphis.  She  is  considered  the  best  bakercss  in  the  establishment.  She 
is  not  so  great  a  prophet  as  to  scare  me  into  belief.  (Is  a  governess  the  wife 
of  a  governor,  or  is  she  a  woman  that  governs  ?)  The  tiger  broke  from  its 
cage.  A  weasel  put  his  head  out  from  an  old  stone  wall.  How  can  a  call 
distinguish  his  mother's  lowing  from  that  of  a  thousand  other  cows?  How 
timidly  the  rabbit  looks  out  from  his  bushy  covert,  and  how  briskly  the  squirrel 
oiiatters  on  the  limb  near  her  nest  in  a  hole  of  some  tall  tree.  The  sun,  in  ita 
bright  career  round  the  world,  does  not  look  down  upon  a  lovelier  or  livelier 
land;  uor  dos;s  the  moon  tlirow,  auywhere  else,  its  silver  mantle  more  softly  or 
beautifully  upon  the  slumbering  world  below.  Alas!  we  know  only  that  the 
ship  sailed  from  England,  but  that  to  P^ngland  it  never  returned  again.  They 
who  seek  wisdom,  will  certainly  find  her.  (Not  personified.)  His  form  had 
not  yet  lost  all  her  original  brightness. — Milton.  Her  form  extends  o'er  all 
things  that  have  breath ;  a  cruel  tyrant,  and  her  name  is  Death. — Slieffield. 
While  Spring  shall  pour  his  showers. —  Collins. 

3.  Persons. 

Politeness  usually  require.?  that  the  speaker  shall  mention  the  addressed 
person  first,  and  himself  last. 

I,  Mary,  and  you,  are  to  go  next  Sunday.  If  James  and  you  take  the 
horses,  I  and  Martha  will  have  nothing  to  riilo.  Mother  said  that  I  and  you 
must  stay  at  home.  Wo  and  they  studied  Latin  together.  When  he  and  you 
are  married,  I  will  come  to  see  you.  This  law,  fellow-citizens,  bears  hard  upon 
me,  upon  you,  and  upon  every  other  laboring  rnaa.  (Proper  or  not  proper,-  de- 
pending on  the  sense.) 

4.  Numbers. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  should  be  correctly  us?d  in  number,  according  to 
the  sense,  and  the  proper  form  of  the  word. 

The  room  is  eighteen  foot  long,  and  sixteen  foot  wide.  T  measured  the  log 
with  a  pole  ten  foot  long — with  a  ten-feet  pole.       The  lot  has  25  foot  front,  and 


124  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

is  8  rod  deep.  The  teamster  hauled  four  cord  of  wood,  and  three  ton  of  liar, 
in  nine  hour.  St.  Louis  is  seven  mile  long  and  two  mile  wide.  Five  quintil- 
lion,  six  quadrillion,  seven  trillion,  eight  billion,  nme  million,  two  thousand,  thrco 
hundred  and  forty-tive.  Five  billions  six  millions  twentj-five  thousands  two 
hundred  and  three.  For  this  dog  he  paid  five  pound  and  ten  shilling.  She 
gathered  a  few  handful  of  flowers.  The  corpse  of  the  Mexicans  were  left  to  the 
wolf  and  the  vulture.  The  work  embraces  every  minutiae — all  the  minutia  of 
the  science.  If  six  apples  cost  three  pence,  two  apples  will  cost  one  pence. 
The  prairie-hens  were  sold  by  score  and  dozen.  I  bought  two  pairs  of  socks. 
The  Swede  are  a  patriotic  people,  as  well  as  the  Swiss.  The  whole  fleet  con- 
sists of  twelve  sail.  — ships.  Of  his  oxens,  he  had  just  sold  six  or  seven 
heads.  He  used  his  influence  as  a  mean  for  destroying  the  party.  In  the 
early  settlement  of  Missouri,  beaver  and  water-fowl  were  abundant  about  the 
rivers  and  creeks.  He  never  took  two  shot  at  a  deer.  A  bag  of  shots  will  last 
us  a  year. 

We  now  came  to  a  region  where  buffalo,  turkeys,  elk,  and  bear,  were  to  bo 
found.  Several  chimnies  were  blown  down  by  the  last  storm.  The  vermina 
were  so  numerous  that  we  could  raise  no  fowl.  As  we  emerged  from  the 
woods,  we  saw  three  deers  standing  on  a  small  eminence  in  the  prairie.  These 
are  desideratas  not  found  every  day.  I  will  take  no  more  of  his  nostra,  be  the 
consequences  what  they  may.  Of  these  plants,  there  are  several  genuses. 
The  garden  of  Eden  contained  all  kind  of  fruit.  The  heathen  are  those  people 
who  worship  idols.  He  is  a  chemist,  and  has  many  apparatuses  in  his  office. 
— much  apparatus —  or,  7nany  kinds  of  apparatus —  The  Mussulmen  are  Ma- 
hometans, but  the  Germans  are  not.  The  ay''s  and  nay''s  were  then  taken. 
How  many  6s  in  nine  8s?  Your  zs  and  ys  are  not  weU  shaped.  (Write  out 
in  words  j\  and  ■^-^.)  No  familys  stand  higher  than  the  Winthrop's,  Web- 
ster's, and  Everett's,  of  New  England.  The  fowls  were  sold  at  nine  pennies  a 
piece.  Byron  was  one  of  the  greatest  poetic  genii  that  ever  lived.  The  sheata 
were  carried  away  by  thiefs.  The  cargos  consisted  chiefly  of  calicos,  mangos, 
and  potatos.  Two  folioes.  The  angelic  Peri's.  Two  of  his  aid-de-camps 
were  killed.  His  brother-in-laws  were  educated  at  the  same  university.  The 
deserters  were  tried  by  court-martials. 

The  Doctors  Stevensons  and  the  Misses  Arnolds  seem  to  be  on  very  good 
terras.  The  two  Misses  Cheevers,  the  Misses  Boltons,  the  Messrs.  Hays,  and 
the  Mrs.  Talbots,  were  all  at  the  party.  The  second,  third,  and  filth  story, 
were  filled  with  goods.  The  Old  and  the  New  Testaments — the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  in  one  large  volume,  called  the  Bible.  You  may  learn  the  ninth 
and  tenth  page — the  ninth  and  the  tenth  pages,  and  review  the  first  or  second 
pages.  The  English,  French,  and  German  nation — the  English,  the  French, 
and  the  German  nations,  are  the  most  enlightened.  Nouns  have  the  nomina- 
tive, the  possessive,  and  the  objective  cases;  the  singular  and  the  plural  num- 
bers; the  masculine,  feminine,  common,  and  neuter  gender ;  and  the  first,  sec- 
ond, and  third  person.  Bushnell's,  Halsall's,  and  Woodward's  stores  occupy  the 
next  three  buildings.  Bushnell's  store,  HalsaWs,  &c.  Ho  and  1  were  neither 
of  us  any  great  talkers.  The  sermon  produced  a  deep  impression  on  the  hearts 
of  every  hearer.  We  shall  give  but  a  short  Preface.  (There  was  but  one 
author.)  It  was  for  our  sakes  that  Jesus  died  upon  the  cross.  Very  few  per- 
sons are  contented  with  their  lots.  They  were  trained  together  in  their  cluld- 
hoods.  The  members  will  regard  their  reputations,  and  not  demand  exorbitant 
wages.  It  is  not  worth  our  whiles,  to  study  stenography.  — our  time —  Let 
us  drive  on,  and  get  our  suppers  at  the  next  house.  The  directors  did  little  on 
their  parts,  to  relieve  the  bank.  We  shall  advocate  these  measures,  not  in  the 
names  of  our  constituents,  but  on  our  own  responsibilities.  All  these  treea 
send  J,heir  tap-roots  deep  into  the  ground.     — the  tap-root — 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. EXERCISES.  125 

5.  Nominative  Case. 

•A  noun  or  a  pronoun  must  be  in  the  nominative  case, — 

1.  When  it  is  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb. 

2.  When  it  is  used  absolutely  or  independently. 

a.  The  object  of  the  active  verb,  and  not  of  the  preposition,  should  bo 
made  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb. 

7.  Objective   Case. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  must  be  in  the  objective  case, — 

1.  When  it  is  the  object  of  a  verb. 

2.  When  it  is  the  object  of  a  preposition. 

8.  Same  Case. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  explain  or  identify  another,  must  be 
in  the  same  case. 

'  Him  and  me  wont  to  the  same  church.  Thorn  that  seek  wisdom,  will  find 
it.  You  and  him  are  of  the  same  age.  Gentle  reader,  let  you  and  I,  in  like 
manner,  walk  in  the  paths  of  virtue.  Them  are  not  worth  having?.  Let  there 
be  none  but  thee  and  I.  The  whole  need  not  a  physician,  but  them  that  are 
sick.  He  can  not  write  as  well  as  me.  I  sorrowed  as  them  that  have  no 
hope.  He  is  taller  than  me,  but  I  am  as  tall  as  her.  I  do  not  think  such 
persons  as  him  competent  to  judge.  You  did  fully  as  well  as  me.  It  is  not 
tit  for  such  as  us  to  sit  with  the  rulers  of  the  land.  You  can  fiad  no  better 
man  than  him.  "We  are  as  good  arithmeticians  as  them,  but  they  are  better 
grammarians  than  us.  Few  persons  would  do  as  much  for  him  as  he  and  me 
have  done.  This  is  a  small  matter  between  you  and  I.  All,  save  I,  were  at 
rest  aud  enjoyment.  There  was  no  one  in  the  room  except  she.  Her  price 
is  paid,  aud  she  is  sold  like  thou.  The  Lee's  were  distinguished  officers  in  the 
Revolution.  Such  a  man,  in  the  sight  of  angels,  is  more  illustrious  than  all  the 
Alexander's,  Caisar's,  and  iBonaparte's,  that  ever  lived.  He  and  they  we  know, 
but  who  art  thou?  ilsteeming  theirselves  wise,  they  became  fools.  Let  each 
one  help  hissehl       He  said  so  hisself. 

If  people  will  put  theirselves  into  danger,  they  should  be  willing  to  bear  the 
consequences.  She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply.  Y'e  only 
have  I  known.  Who  should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend  !  Who 
did  she  marry?  Tell  me,  in  sadness,  whom  is  she  you  love? — Shakespeare. 
To  poor  we,  thine  enmity  is  most  capital. — Shakespeare^ s  Goriolamis.  Him  I 
accuse,  has  entered.  Who  spilt  this  ink  ? — N'ot  me  ;  it  wasn't  me.  Who 
can  work  this  sum  ? — Me.  Who  rode  in  the  buggy  ? — Him  and  her.  Who 
broke  this  pitcher  ? — Not  her ;  it  was  me.  Who  is  that  boy  speaking  to  ? 
To  whom,  &c.  Who  did  you  send  for  ?  Who  did  you  buy  it  of?  They  who 
niach  is  given  to,  will  have  much  to  answer  for.  He  who  committed  the  of- 
fense, thou  shouldst  correct ;  not  I,  who  am  innocent.  Who  shall  we  send  ? — 
Whomsoever  will  go.  Whom  do  you  think  stands  head  in  our  class  ?  That 
is  the  boy  whom  we  think  deserves  the  prize.  I  should  like  to  assist  a  young 
man  who  I  think  to  be  so  worthy  of  assistance.  Can  not  a  gentleman  take 
into  his  buggy  to  ride  with  him,  whosoever  he  pleases?  Never  tie  yourself  to 
any  one,  before  knowing  whom  the  person  is  you  are  choosing.  But,  first, 
I  must  show  who  I  moan  by  the  administration. — Benton.  He  offered  his 
daughter  in  marriage  to  whomsoever  might  subdue  the  place. — Irving.  This 
excited  the  curiosity  of  the  Recorder  as  to  whom  tne  consequential  darkey  might 
bo. — Mo.  RtpuhUcan.  Let  the  people  elect  whom  they  think  is  best  quahfied 
to   lead  them — whomsoever  is  best   qualiflod  to  lead  them — whosoever  they 


126  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

know  to  be  best  qualified  to  lead  them.  He  supported  those  whom  he  thought 
were  of  his  party — ^who  he  thought  true  to  his  party.  Ho  attacked  the  enemy. 
whom  he  saw  were  crossing  the  river — who  he  saw  crossing  the  river.  * 


I  was  offered  a  soat.  He  was  offered  the  control  of  the  entire  school.  He 
was  left  a  large  estate  by  his  uncle.  We  were  shown  a  sweet-potato  that 
weighed  25  pounds.  I  was  shown  into  the  parlor.  (Allowable.)  Let  him 
be  shown  the  method  we  have  adopted.  I  have  been  promised  a  better  situa- 
tion in  the  South.  You  were  paid  a  high  compliment  by  the  young  lady. 
Pupils  expelled  from  other  colleges,  will  not  be  allowed  admittance  here.  By 
such  a  course  of  proceeding,  I  am  refused  that  protection  which  every  citizen 
has  a  right  to  expect.  We  were  allowed  the  use  of  a  large  pasture  near  the 
mansion.       These  documents  were  had  recourse  to  in  the  course  of  the  debate. 


Him  losing  the  way,  we  were  obliged  to  remain  in  the  woods  till  morning. 
Me  being  absent,  the  young  folks  lived  high.  Tiieir  refusing  to  comply,  I  with- 
drew. Oh!  happy  us,  surrounded  by  so  many  blessings.  And  me,  what 
shall  I  do  ?  Him  who  had  led  them  to  battle  being  killed,  they  immediately 
retreated.  The  whole  family  believed  in  spiritual  rappings,  us  excepted.  Her 
being  the  only  daughter,  no  expense  had  been  spared  in  her  education.  Whose 
gray  top  shall  tremble,  Him  descending.  The  bleating  sheep  with  my  com- 
plaints agree ;  them  parched  with  heat,  and  me  inflamed  by  thee.  I  mean 
Noah  Webster,  be  who  wrote  the  dictionary.  The  man  has  just  arrived,  him 
whom  we  expected  yestei'day.  Believing  the  man  to  be  a  doctor,  or  he  who  had 
cured  the  others,  we  applied  to  him  for  assistance.  We  will  go  at  once, — him 
and  me.  And  do  you  thus  speak  to  me,  I  who  have  so  often'  befriended  you  ? 
These  are  the  volunteers  from  Texas,  them  who  fought  so  bravely  in  Mexico. 

Christ,  and  him  crucified,  is  the  corner-stone  of  our  Faith.  Let  the  pupils 
be  divided  into  several  classes ;  especially  they  who  read,  they  who  study  gram- 
mar, and  they  who  study  arithmetic.  — sspecially  those —  I  dread  this  man, 
being  he  that  has  so  often  injured  me.  — hecaubse  he  is  the  one  who —  To  John 
and  James,  they  who  had  misspent  their  time  at  school,  their  father  left  nothing. 
(Omit  they.)  Whom  being  dead,  there  was  no  one  to  check  him  in  his  wild 
career.  I  would  say  so,  were  it  ho  or  any  other  person  whomsoever.  — what- 
soever. 

It  was  not  me ;  it  was  them  or  her.  Is  it  me  you  mean  ?  Was  it  him,  or 
me,  that  you  called  ?  If  I  were  him,  I  would  send  for  the  doctor.  If  it  were 
me,  I  would  act  differently.  'Twas  thee  I  sought.  I  knew  it  was  him — it 
to  be  he.  But  whom  say  ye  that  I  am  ?  It  is  him  whom  you  said  it  was 
Who  did  you  take  us  to  be  ?  She  is  the  person  who  I  understood  it  to  havo 
been.  — that  I —  He  is  a  man  who  I  am  far  from  considering  happy.  I 
would  not  be  the  man  whom  he  now  is.  It  was  not  me,  that  said  so.  I  caro 
not,  let  him  be  whom  he  may.  No  matter  where  the  vanquished  be,  nor 
whom.  What  you  saw  was  but  a  picture  of  him,  and  not  him.  It  was  not 
us,  that  made  the  noise.  I  knew  it  to  be  they.  If  is  them  and  their  poster- 
ity who  are  to  be  the  sufferers.  He  did  not  prove  to  be  the  man  whom 
he  was  recommended  to  be.  Its  being  mo  siiould  make  no  difference  in 
your  determination.  (Better :  That  it  is  I,  &o.)  There  was  no  ^Q\xh^  qt  its 
being  him. 

6.  Possessive  Case. 

1.  The  relation  of  possession  or  property  should  be  expressed  in  the 
most  appropriate  manner,  according  to  custom  and  euphony. 

2.  The  possessive  sign  should  be  used  but  once,  to  express  one  pos- 
session^ whatever  number  of  vy^ords  denote  the  possessor. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. EXERCISES.  127 

His  misfortunes  awaken  nobody's  pity,  though  no  ones  ability  ever  went 
firther  for  others  good.  A  mothers  tenderness  and  a  fathers  care  are  natures 
gifts  for  mans  advantage.  John  Norton  his  book.  We  used  Pierce'  Trigo- 
nometry, Loomis'  Greoraetry,  and  Wells'  Grammar.  How  do  you  like  Doug- 
las' bill  ?  Achaia's  sons  at  Ilium  slain  for  the  Atridse'  sake.  Your's,  our's, 
her's,  their's,  who's,  hisself,  theirselves,  yourn,  hern,  ourn,  his'n.  Adams'  Ad- 
ministration. Essex  death  haunted  the  conscience  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Five 
year's  interest  remained  unpaid.  Three  days  time  was  given  to  the  debtors. 
Six  months  wages  will  then  be  duo.  I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten  sake. 
Rubens'  pictures.  Horace'*  satires — Horace's  satires=.  (Find  a  dilFerent 
but  equivalent  expression.)  Terence'  plays — Terence's  plays=.  Socrates's 
death=.  Demosthenes'  orations — Demosthenes's  orations.  Hortonsius' 
wonderful  memory.  For  Herodias'  sake,  his  brother  Philip's  wife.  The  Gov- 
ernor of  Missouri's  message.  Marcy's  letter,  the  Secretary  of  War,  is  a  mas- 
terly reply=.  John's  brother's  wife's  sister  married  a  mechanic=.  Was  it 
your  book,  or  somebody  else's  ?  The  wife  of  the  captain  of  the  Tropic=-.  (Al- 
lowable.) 

The  Commons'  House  represents  tlie  yeomanry ;  and  the  Lords',  the  nobil- 
ity. Sunday  is  also  called  the  day  of  the  Lord.  God's  love==.  The  world's 
government  is  not  left  to  chance.  The  extent  of  the  prerogative  of  the  king 
of  England.  A  list  of  some  of  the  books  of  each  of  tlje  classes  of  literature 
will  be  given.  — in  each.  Daniel  Boone  of  Kentucky's  adventures.  Edward 
the  Second  of  England's  queen.  He  is  Clay  the  great  orator's  youngest  son. 
Geo.  McDufQe  was  nominated  by  John  Calhoun  tlie  Senator's  request.  These 
works  are  Cicero's,  the  most  eloqueut  of  men's.  The  opiuionative  man  thinks 
his  opinions  better  than  any  one's  else  opinions — any  one  else's  opinions. 
This  picture  of  your  mother's  is  a  very  good  likeness.  This  last  work  of  Long- 
fellow will  add  little  to  his  reputation.  Jack's  the  Giaut-kiiler's  wonderful  ex- 
])loits.  We  deposited  our  money  at  Wiggins's,  the  banker's  and  commission 
merchant's.  It  was  the  men's,  women's,  and  children's  lot,  to  suffer  great  ca- 
lamities. Linton's,  Pope's,  and  Company's  library  is  large=.  Allen's,  Thom- 
son's, and  Hardcastle's  store  is  opposite  to  ours.  Alljn,  Tiiomson,  and  Hard- 
castle's  stores,  are  not  joint  possessions.  Albert's  and  Samuel's  heads  are  shaped 
like  teapots.       Peter's  and  Andrew's  occupation  was  that  of  tisherman. 

Morrison's  and  Fletcher's  (arms  are  the  next  two  on  the  road.  Morrison' -i 
farm  and  Fleicher^s  are,  &c.  Morrison  and  FLteher's  larm  will  be  occupies! 
by  the  respective  owners.  I  have  no  time  to  listen  to  either  John  or  Joseph's 
lesson.  It  was  necessary  to  have  both  the  surgeon  and  the  pliysician's  advice. 
Neither  the  lawyer  nor  the  doctor's  aid  was  ever  needed  in  this  happy  valley. 
Louis  the  Fourteenth  and  Bonaparte's  reign  are  distinguished  periods  in  the  his- 
tory of  France.  He  disobeyed  his  fatlier  as  well  as  his  mother's  advice. 
Brown,  Smith,  and  Jones'  wife,  usually  went  sh(,'ppiug  together.  The  bill  iiad 
the  cashier,  but  not  the  president's,  signature.  vV'hose  dictionary  do  you  pre- 
fer,— Johnson.  Webster,  or  Worcester  ?  The  horse  got  away  in  consequence 
of  me  neglecting  to  fasten  the  gate.  — my  neglediag —  or,  because  I  had  nc- 
ghcted — ■  He  was  averse  to  the  nation  involving  itself  in  war.  There  is  some 
talk  of  us  getting  into  a  war.  Much  depends  on  the  pupil  composing  frequently. 
— on  how  frequently —  He  being  a  rich  man,  did  not  make  him  a  happy  man. 
Thai  he  loa.^  a  rich,  &c.  The  time  for  us  beginning  to  plough,  is  at  hand.  The 
time  for  VrS  to  begin,  &c.  The  time  tor  him  making  the  speech,  had  nearly 
passed  away.  What  is  the  reason  of  you  not  having  gone  to  school  ?  — that 
you  ho.ve  not  gone —  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  him  going — his  going — 
your  going.  — him  from  going  ;  or, — you  from  going.  Such  will  ever  be  tlio 
consequences  of  youth  associating  with  vicious  companions.  — wloen  your.g  per- 
sons associate —  From  him  having  always  assisted  me,  I  again  applied  to  him 
ibr  help.     Because  hi —  or,  laasmtich  as  he,  &c.       The  situation  euabicd   hiiu  to 


1^  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. — EXERCISES. 

earn  something,  without  him  losing  too  much  tirao  from  his  studies.     — without 
losing — 

9.  Position  in  regard  to   Case. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  should  be  so  construed  with  other  words,  as 
not  to  leave  the  case  uncertain  or  ambiguous. 

The  settler  here  the  savage  slew.  (Which  slew  the  other?)  I  do  not  love 
him  better  than  you.  And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed.  And  all  the 
air  a  solemn  stillness  holds.  Our  hunters  caught  the  orang-outangs  themselves. 
He  suffered  himself  to  betray  his  friend.  Poetry  has  a  measure  as  well  as 
music,  Forrest  plays  these  pieces  better  than  all  others.  She  acted  her  part 
better  than  any  other  one.       I  would  rather  give  her  to  thee  than  another. 


ProBioiiic§. 

1.   Choice  of  Pronouns. 

In  the  use  of  pronouns,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  select  the  most 
appropriate. 

a.  In  the  selection  of  pronouns,  we  are  governed  by  the  sense,  rather 
than  by  the  nouns  which  they  are  to  represent. 

J).  It  is  inelegant  to  use  pronouns  of  different  kinds  for  the  same  object, 
and  in  the  same  connection,  when  we  naturally  expect  uniformity. 

I  gave  all  what  I  had.  I  sent  every  thing  what  you  ordered.  I  am  the 
boy  what  is  not  afraid  to  go.  There  is  the  same  man  whom  we  saw  a  while 
ago.  There  is  the  same  wagon  of  apples  which  was  at  the  market.  In  her 
looks,  she  is  the  same  as  she  always  was.  Tlie  same  objects  which  pleased  the 
boy,  will  not  always  please  the  man.  The  objects  which,  &c.  We  prepared  us 
to  die.  — ourselves —  Give  that  which  you  can  spare  to  the  poor.  — what 
you —  We  speak  that  we  do  know.  I  am  that  I  am.  I  am  happy  in  the 
friend  which  I  have  long  proved.  Those  which  are  rich,  should  assist  the  poor 
and  helpless.  The  heroic  souls  which  defended  the  Alamo.  She  was  a  con- 
spicuous flower,  whicli  he  had  sensibility  to  love,  ambition  to  attempt,  and  skill 
to  win.  My  dogs  now  came  upon  the  tracks  of  the  lion,  who  had  cauglit 
and  eaten  the  man  during  the  night.  So  I  gave  the  reins  to  ray  horse,  who 
knew  the  way  much  bettor  than  I  knew  it.  Who  of  those  ladies  do  you 
like  best  ? 

Moses  was  the  meekest  man  whom  we  read  of  in  the  Old  Testament.  Hu- 
mility is  one  of  the  most  amiable  virtues  which  we  can  possess.  He  was  the 
first  man  who  came.  This  is  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  State  which  we  have 
as  yet  seen.  Marcy  was  perhaps  the  ablest  secretary  who  ever  was  in  this  de- 
partment. He  sold  his  best  horse,  which  had  been  given  to  him.  (Proper ; 
the  relative  clause  not  being  restrictive.)  Who  who  has  the  feelings  of  a  man, 
would  submit  to  such  treatment  ?  Who  is  she  who  comes  clothed  in  a  robe  of 
light  green  ?  By  this  speculation  he  lost  all  which  ho  had  promised  to  his 
daughter.  All  wiio  ever  knev/  him,  spoke  well  of  him.  A  most  ungrateful 
return  for  all  which  I  have  done  for  him.  Of  all  the  congregations  whom  I 
ever  saw,  this  was  certainly  the  largest.  The  very  night  as  suits  a  melancholy 
temperament.  He  was  devoured  by  the  very  dogs  which  he  had  reared.  They 
are  such  persons  tl)at  1  do  not  like  to  associate  with.  These  are  the  same  sums 
as  we  had  before.  He  is  like  a  beast  of  pr.y  who  destroys  without  pity.  la 
a  street  in  Cincinnati  is  a  parrot  who  has  been  taught  to  repeat  a  line  of  a  song 
which  many  of  you  have  heard.       The  monkey  which  had  been  appohited  ad 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. EXERCISES.  12? 

the  orator  on  the  occasion,  then  addressed  the  assembly.  There  was  a  little 
do;z  whose  name  was  Fido.  and  who  was  very  fond  of  his  master.  — dog  named 
Fido,  that —  Yarico  soon  became  a  general  favorite,  who  never  foiled  to  re- 
ceive the  crumbs  from  the  hfeakfast-table.  The  little  ant,  which  had  a  plenti- 
ful store,  thus  spoke  to  the  little  cricket :  "  We  ants  never  borrow,  we  ants 
never  lend." 

With  the  return  of  spring  came  four  martins,  who  were  evidently  the  same 
which  had  been  bred  un^ler  those  eaves  the  previous  year.  The  witnesses  and 
documents  which  we  wanted,  ^ve  been  obtained.  The  passengers  and  steamer 
which  we  saw  yesterday,  are  iiow  buried  in  the  ocean.  Was  it  the  wind,  or 
you,  who  shut  the  door  ?  The  land  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  was  claimed 
by  tlie  chiefs  and  tribes  who  inhabited  the  land  on  the  other  side.  Even  the 
corpses  who  were  found,  could  not  be  recognized.  The  character  whom  he 
represented,  was  by  much  the  best  in  the  play.  This  lubberly  boy  we  usually 
call  Falstaff,  who  is  but  another  name  for  fat  and  fun.      It  is  I,  who  will  go  with 

you.       That  man  is  wisest ^keeps  his  own  secrets.       It  is  this  alone,  which 

has  induced  me  to  accept  the  office.  Was  it  you,  or  he,  who  made  so  much 
noise  ?  Is  it  I,  or  he,  whom  you  want  to  see  ?  It  was  the  frankness  and 
nobleness  of  his  disposition,  whicli  I  admired.  Would  any  man  who  cares  for 
himself,  accept  such  a  situation  ?  Let  us  not  mingle  in  every  dissipation,  nor 
enjoy  every  excitement,  which  we  can. 

He  is  a  man  who  is  very  wealthy.  — that  is —  or,  He  is  a  very  wealthy  man. 
She  is  a  woman  who  is  never  contented.  The  misfortunes  of  a  man  who  would 
not  listen  to  his  wife.  I  hate  persons  who  never  do  a  generous  action.  Nouns 
of  the  common  gender  denote  objects  which  are  males  or  females.  People  who 
are  always  denouncing  others,  are  often  no  better  themselves.  Principles 
which  have  been  long  established,  are  not  easily  eradicated.  The  tribes  whom 
we  have  described,  inhabited  the  Mississippi  Yalley.  The  nations  who  have 
Kood  governments,  are  happy.  I  joined  a  large  crowd  who  was  moving  to- 
wards the  Capitol.  He  was  a  member  of  the  legislature  who  passed  this  bill. 
He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  who  surrounded  hinu  The  committee  which 
was  appointed  to  examine  the  students,  was  hardly  competent  to  do  so.  Wilt 
thou  help  me  drive  these  horses  to  the  pasture?  Will  you,  &c.  Do  you  be 
careful  that  all  thy  actions  be  honest  and  honorable.  Do  thou—  or,  that  all  your 
actions —  Thou  shouldst  never  forsake  the  friend  who  has  ever  been  faithful 
to  you.  Ere  you  remark  another's  fault,  bid  thy  own  conscience  look  within. 
You  have  mine,  but  I  have  thine.  0  Thou,  who  hast  preserved  us,  and  that 
wilt  continue  to  preserve  us.  There  is  the  same  boat  tliat  came  last  evening, 
and  which  will  go  away  again  this  morning. 

The  poor  man  who  can  read,  and  that  possesses  a  taste  for  reading,  can  find 
entertainment  at  home.  The  man  who  came  with  us,  and  that  is  dressed  in 
black,  is  the  preacher.  Is  it  possible  that  he  should  know  what  he  is,  and  be 
that  he  is  ?  But  what  wo  saw  last,  and  which  pleased  us  most,  was  the  char- 
acter of  the  old  miser  in  the  farce.  It  is  such  a  method  as  has  never  been 
thought  of  before,  and  which,  we  believe,  will  be  generally  adopted.  They  are 
such  apples  as  ours,  or  which  you  bought.  — or  such  as  you —  Policy  keeps 
coining  truth  in  her  mints — such  truth  as  it  can  tolerate ;  and  every  die  except 
its  own,  she  breaks,  and  casts  away.  Learning  has  its  infancy,  when  it  is  luxu- 
riant and  juvenile  ;  and  lastly  his  old  age,  when  it  waxeth  dry  and  exhaust. — 
Bacon.  Is  reputable,  national,  and  present  use,  which,  for  brevity's  sake,  I  shall 
simply  denominate  good  use,  always  uniform  in  her  decisions?  One  does  not 
like  to  liave  one's  self  disparaged  by  those  who  know  one  not.  A  person. . . 
himself  ....  know  him,  not. 


130  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

2.  Agreement  of  Pronouns  with  Antecedents. 

Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  antecedents,  in  gender,  person,  an^l 
number. 

a.  When  the  pronoun  can  not  strictly'  or  fully  represent  its  antecedent 
in  gender,  it  prefers  tlie  masculine. 

b.  The  person  and  number  of  the  antecedent  to  a  pronoun,  are  al- 
ways what  they  would  be  if  the  antecedent  were  the  subject  of  a 
finite  verb. 

Every  person  should  try  to  improve  their  mind  and  lieart.  Each  of  our 
party  carried  a  knapsack  with  them,  for  their  private  convenience.  Not  one- 
of  the  boys  shouM  come  without  their  books.  Many  a  man  looks  back  on  the 
days  of  their  youth,  with  melancholy  regret.  A  person  who  is  resolute,  ener- 
getic, and  watchful,  will  be  apt  to  succeed  in  their  undertakings.  An  orator's 
tongue  should  be  agreeable  to  the  ears  of  their  hearers.  I  do  not  think  any 
one  sliould  incur  censure  for  being  tender  of  their  reputation.  If  we  deprive 
an  animal  of  instinct,  he  will  no  longer  be  able  to  take  care  of  himself.  Wlion 
a  bird  is  caught  in  a  trap,  they  of  course  try  to  get  out.  Scarcely  any  person 
is  so  stupid  as  not  to  know  when  they  are  made  sport  of.  If  any  member  of  the 
congregation  wishes  to  connect  themselves  'vvith  [to]  this  church,  they  will  please 
[to]  come  forward,  while  the  brethren  sing.  Take  up  the  ashes,  and  put  it  into 
the  large  tnb  behind  the  kitchen.  If  you  have  any  victuals  left,  we  will  help 
you  to  eat  it.  His  pulse  did  not  beat  so  fast  as  they  should  beat.  Grains  of 
sand  they  might  be,  tliose  hoarded  moments,  but  it  was  golden  sand.  I  like 
those  molasses,  for  tliey  are  almost  as  good  as  honey. 

I  have  sowed  all  my  oats,  and  it  is  growing  finely.  Our  language  is  not 
less  refined  than  those  of  Italy,  France,  or  Spain.  There  lay  the  paraphernalia 
other  toilet,  just  as  she  had  left  it.  The  simiae  can  stand  erect  on  its  hind  feet. 
"Where  the  early  blue-bird  sung  its  lay.  (The  male  among  birds,  and  not  tho 
female,  usually  sings.)  The  heron  built  its  nest  among  the  reeds.  The  pea- 
cock is  fond  of  displaying  its  gorgeous  plumage.  Tho  hen  looked  very  dis;/on- 
solate,  when  it  saw  its  whole  brood  rush  into  the  pond.  The  Earth  is  my 
mother,  and  I  will  recline  upon  its  bosom.  John  studies; — John  denotes 
the  agent  or  doer,  and  he  is  therefore  in  the  nominative  case.  Horses  is  of  the 
plural  number,  because  they  denote  more  than  one.  '  To  persecute  a  truly 
religious  denomination,  will  only  make  them  flourish  the  better.  The  people 
can  not  be  long  deceived  by  its  demagogues  and  selfish  politicians.  The  mob 
soon  dispersed,  after  their  leaders  were  captured.  Egypt  was  glad  at  their  de- 
parture, for  they  were  afraid  of  them.  The  first  object  of  tho  multitude  was,  to 
organize  itself  into  a  body.  The  Society  wih  hold  their  meetings  in  the  highest 
room  of  the  building.  Each  tribe  is  governed  by  a  ciiief  whom  they  have 
chosen.     (Perhaps  allowable.) 

Tho  government  will  have  cause  to  change  their  orders.  The  cabinet 
seemed  to  be  divided  in  its  sentiments.  The  cabinet  was  distinguished  for  their 
wise  and  vigorous  measures.  The  corps  of  teachers  should  have  its  duties 
properly  distributed  and  arr.tnged.  Tho  board  of  directors,  for  its  own  emol- 
ument, located  the  road  through  this  part  of  the  country.  The  board  of 
directors  should  have  their  powers  defined  and  limited  by  a  charter.  Tho 
regiment  was  much  reduced  in  their  number.  The  court,  in  their  wisdom,  de- 
cided otherwise.  Send  the  multitude  away,  that  it  may  go  and  buy  itself 
food.  The  army,  being  abandoned  by  its  chief,  pursued  meanwhile  their  mi- 
serable march.  (Let  the  construction  be  either  singular  thoughout,  or  plural 
throughout,  but  not  both.)  Tlie  party,  though  disgraced  by  the  selfishness  and 
corruption  of  its  leaders,  made  nevertheless  a  vigorous  and  successful  struggle  to 
regain  their  former  ascendency.       The  Almighty  cut  off  the  family  of  Eli  tho 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. EXERCISES.  131 

high  priest,  for  its  transgressions.  The  twins  resemble  one  another  so  much  as 
to  be  scarcely  distinguishable.       People  should  be  kind  to  each  other. 

Neither  of  us  is  willing  to  give  up  our  claim.  (Say,  "7m  claim,"  if  not  pos- 
sessed in  common;  "oiw  claim"  if  denoting  common  possession.)  He  and  I 
love  their  parents.  If  none  of  you  will  bring  your  horses  to  the  camp,  I  will 
let  mine  stay  too.  I  did  not  notice  which  of  the  men  finished  their  work  first. 
The  tongue  is  like  a  race-horse,  which  runs  the  faster,  the  less  weight  it  carries. 
— he  ruiis —  or,  race-horse :  it  runs,  Sec.  John,  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to 
their  country.  You  and  your  playmates  must  learn  their  lessons.  Two  or 
three  of  us  have  lost  our  hats.  The  sister,  as  well  as  the  brother,  should  per- 
form their  share  of  ilie  household  duties.  The  industrious  boy,  and  the  indo- 
lent one  too,  shall  find  their  proper  reward.  Every  soldier  and  every  olficer 
remained  awake  at  their  station  during  the  night.  Every  herb,  every  flower, 
and  every  animal,  shows  the  wisdom  of  Him  who  made  them.  Let  every  gov- 
ernor and  legislature  do  as  it  thinks  best.  Every  half  a  dozen  boys  should 
have  its  own  bench.       If  any  boy  or  girl  be  absent,  they  will  have  to  go  to  the 

foot  ol  the  class.       I  borrow  one  peck,   or  eight  quarts,  and  add to  the 

upper  term.  Discontent  and  sorrow  manilested  itself  in  his  countenance.  No 
man  or  woman  ever  got  rid  of  their  vices,  without  a  struggle.  One  or  the 
other  must  relinquish  their  claim.  John  or  James  will  favor  us  with  their 
company. 

Neitiier  the  fatlier  nor  the  son  had  ever  been  distinguished  for  their  business 
qualifications.  A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well 
as  T^ad  them  in  a  description.  Poverty  and  wealth  have  each  their  own  temp- 
tations. No  thought,  no  word,  no  action,  whether  they  be  good  or  evil,  can 
escape  the  nocice  of  Grod.  Both  minister  and  magistrate  are  sometimes  com- 
pelled to  choose  between  his  duty  and  his  reputation.  Coifee  and  sugar  are 
imported  fi-om  the  Indies;  and  great  quantities  of  it  are  consumed  annually. 
Avoid  self-conceit  and  insolence:  it  wdl  never  increase  your  wealth  or  your 
happiness.  If  you  should  see  my  horse  or  mule,  I  wish  you  would  have  ihein 
tm-ned  inco  your  pasture.  If  any  gentleman  or  lady  wish  [wishes]  to  have 
their  fortune  told,  they  now  have  an  opportunity.  — his  or  her  .  ...  he  or  sJoe 
now  has —  I  do  not  see  why  I  or  any  other  man  should  not  have  a  [the]  right, 
to  express  our — his — my  opinioios  of  public  affairs.  (Avoid  the  use  of  the  pro- 
noun altogether;  say,  '•  the  opinion  which  either  of  us  may,"  &c.)  My  horse  is  a 
little  darker  than  yours ;  but,  in  every  other  respect,  they  are  exactly  alike. 
— he  is  exactly  like  him ;  or,  — your  hori>e  .  ...  he  ...  .  yours.  My  horse 
is  a  httle  darker  than  yours;  buL,  in  every  other  respect,  they  are  a  perfect  match. 
(Allowable.  Parse  they.)  Notice  is  hereby  given  to  every  person  to  pay  their 
taxes.  (Change  the  antecedent ;  say,  "to  all  persons^',  &c.)  Our  teacher  does  not 
let  any  one  of  us  do  as  they  please.  If  any  person  thinks  it  is  easy  to  write  books, 
let  them  try  it.  Neither  the  negro  boy  nor  the  coach  was  ever  restored  to  his 
owner.  — to  the  owner  ;  or,  Both  tiie  negro  ....  were  never  ....  their  owner. 
Every  person  and  thing  had  its  proper  place  assigned  to  it.     — the  proper — 

3.  Position  of  Pronoun  in  regard  to  Antecedent. 

4.  Inadequacy  of  Pronoun  to  represent  Antecedent. 

A  pronoun  should  not  be  so  used  as  to  leave  it  obscure  or  doubtful 
what  antecedent  it  represents. 

It  is  generally  inelegant  to  make  a  pronoun  needlessly  represent  an 
adjective,  a  phrase,  or  a  sentence. 

The  king  dismissed  his  minister,  without  any  inquiry,  who  had  never  before 
done  so  unjust  an  action.  He  should  not  maiTy  a  woman  in  high  life,  that  has 
no  money.       Where  there  is  nothing  in  the  sense  which  requires  the  last  sound 


132  NOUNS    AND  PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

to  be  elevated,  a  pause  will  be  proper.  A  man  has  no  right  to  judge  another, 
who  is  a  party  concerned.  I  am  the  jailor  who  have  come  to  take  you.  The 
jailor  am  I,  who  will  guard  you  safely.  Lysias  promised  his  father,  that  ho 
would  never  forsake  his  friends.  Thou  art  a  friend  indeed,  who  hast  often  re- 
lieved me.  We  admire  the  beauty  of  the  rainbow,  and  are  led  to  consider 
the  cause  of  it.  John  told  James  that  his  horse  had  run  away.  The  lord 
can  not  refuse  to  admit  the  heir  of  hia  tenant  upon  his  death  ;  nor  can  he  remove 
his  present  tenant  so  long  as  he  lives. 

The  law  is  inoperative,  which  is  not  right.  — and  that  it  is  so,  is  not  right. 
Some  men  are  too  ignorant  to  be  humble,  without  which  there  can  be  no  docil- 
ity. — and  without  humility —  An  old  man,  bent  with  years,  was  languidly 
digging,  or  attempting  it.  — to  dig.  A  bird  is  that  which  has  feathers.  — an 
animal  that —  Every  seat  is  to  bo  occupied  by  the  one  before  it.  — by  the 
person —  A  compound  sentence  is  one  composed  of  two  or  more  others.  — is 
a  sentence —  This  rule  is  not  strictly  true,  and  a  few  examples  will  show  it. 
— as  a  few  examples  will  show.  When  a  man  kills  another  from  malice,  it  is 
called  murder.  — the  deed  is  called  mv/rder.  The  servant  took  away  the  horse, 
which  was  unnecessary.  The  accent  is  laid  upon  the  last  syllable  of  a  word, 
which  is  favorable  to  the  melody.  The  man  brought  the  whole  package,  which 
was  more  than  we  expected.  The  prisoners  rebelled  against  the  regulations  of 
the  establishment,  of  which  we  shall  presently  give  an  account.  There  is 
among  all  people  a  belief  of  immortahty,  arising  from  the  natural  desire  of  liv- 
ing, and  strengthened  by  uniform  tradition,  which  has  certainly  some  influence 
on  practice. 

5.  Inelegant  Insertion  of  Pronoun. 

When  a  pronoun  can  add  nothing  to  the  sense,  it  should  not  be 
needlessly  inserted  to  usurp  the  place  of  a  better  word. 

Henry  Holmes  his  book.  These  lots,  if  they  had  been  sold  sooner,  they 
would  have  brought  more  money.  If  these  lots  had  been,  &c.  John  he  went, 
James  he  went,  and  Mary  she  went ;  but  the  rest  they  all  staid  at  home.  Two 
nouns,  when  they  come  together,  and  signify  the  same  thing,  they  must  be  put 
in  the  same  case.  The  Latin  and  the  Grreek,  though  they  are  much  neglected, 
yet  competent  judges  know  that  our  language  can  hardly  be  perfectly  under- 
stood without  them.  The  river  rising  very  rapidly,  it  overflowed  its  banks. 
These  wild  horses  having  been  once  captured,  they  were  soon  tamed.  I  would 
like  to  have  it  now,  what  I  had  then.  (Omit  "  e^.")  Whatsoever  you  learn 
perfectly,  you  will  never  forget  it.  It  is  not  to  the  point,  what  he  said.  What- 
soever she  found,  she  took  it  with  her.  Whoever  thinks  so,  he  judges  errone- 
ously. Whom,  when  she  had  seen,  she  invited  him  to  dinner.  — seen  him, . . . 
invited  to  dinner.  It  is  indisputably  true,  his  assertion,  though  it  seems  er- 
roneous. Mis  assertion  is,  &c.  It  is  marvelous  what  tricks  jugglers  sometimes 
play.  — to  observe  what —  Every  thing  whatsoever  ho  could  spare,  he  gave 
away.     (Omit  "every  thing.''^} 

6.  Inelegant  Omission  of  Pronoun. 

1.  The  omission  of  the  relative  adjunct,  or  of  the  relative  in  the  nomi- 
native case,  is  generally  inelegant. 

2.  Parts  that  are  to  be  contrasted,  emphatically  distinguished,  or 
kept  distinct  in  thought,  must  usually  be  expressed  with  fullness. 

3.  The  omission  of  the  nominative  is  inelegant,  unless  the  verb  is  in 
the  imperative  mood,  or  in  the  same  connection  with  another  finite  verb. 

He  is  not  now  in  the  condition  he  was.  Yonder  is  the  place  I  saw  IL 
A  few  remarks  as  to  the  manner  it  should  be  done,  must  sutfice.      The  money 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. EXERCISES.  133 

has  not  been  used  for  the  purpose  it  was  appropriated.  There  is  Miss  Liddy, 
can  dance  a  jig,  raise  paste,  write  a  good  letter,  keep  an  account,  give  a  reason- ' 
able  answer,  and  do  as  she  is  bid.  Ho  was  a  man  had  no  influence.  Whose 
own  example  strengthens  all  his  laws,  and  is  himself  the  great  sublime  he  draws. 
Will  martial  flames  for  ever  fire  thy  mind,  and  never,  never  be  to  heaven  re- 
signed ?  — and  wilt  thou  never —  There  is  not  a  man  here,  would  not  do  the 
pame  thing.  There  is  no  man  knows  better  how  to  make  money.  It  was 
tlie  man  sat  next  to  you.  It  was  this  jnduced  me  to  send  for  you.  Who  is 
there  so  base  that  would  be  a  bondman  ?  — that  he —  The  word  depends  on 
what  precedes  and  follows.  There  are  who  can  not  bear  to  see  their  friends 
surpass  them.       If  there  are  any  have  been  omitted,  they  must  say  so. 

They  were  rich  once,  but  are  poor  now.  He  is  a  man  of  corrupt  principles, 
but  has  great  talents.  This  is  a  style  of  dress  to  which  I  am  partial ;  but  is  not 
now  fashionable.  I  approve  your  plan  so  far  as  relates  to  our  friend.  The 
arrangement  is  very  good;  at  least,  so  far  as  relates  to  my  convenience.  If  the 
privileges  to  which  he  was  entitled,  and  had  been  so  long  enjoying,  should  now, 
Ac.  All  the  young  trees  which  I  planted  last  year,  and  were  growing  finely, 
have  been  destroyed  by  rabbits.  Any  of  these  prisoners  knowing  the  facts  of 
the  case,  and  will  give  his  testimony  in  full  to  the  court,  siaall  be  pardoned  by 
the  State.  Why  do  ye  that  which  is  not  lawful  to  do  on  the  Sabbath-days  ? 
— which  itis  not —  The  show- bread,  which  is  not  lawful  to  eat  but  for  the 
priests  only.  From  these  proceedings  may  be  readily  inferred,  how  such  men 
beex>me  rich.     (Perhaps  allowable.) 

Neither  my  poverty  nor  ambition  could  induce  me  to  accept  such  an  ofiSce. 
— nor  my —  This  part  of  California  is  the  loveliest  country  in  the  world, 
whether  we  regard  its  climate  or  soil.  He  was  related  to  some  of  the  first 
families  of  the  State,  both  by  his  father's  and  mother's  side.  God  punishes  the 
vices  of  parents  in  themselves  or  children.  The  future  should  excite  not  only 
our  hopes,  but  fears  too.  Dr.  Jones  and  wife  occupy  the  front  room.  His 
own  and  father's  farm  were  adjacent  to  each  other.  My  inability  to  get  em- 
ployment, and  destitute  condition,  pressed  heavily  upon  my  feelings.  My  duty, 
my  interest,  and  inclinations,  all  urge  me  to  the  undertaking.  This  is  a  posi- 
tion I  condemn,  and  must  be  better  established  to  gain  the  faith  of  any  one. 
The  mail  came  this  morning,  and  wiU  leave  again  this  evening.  (Allowable; 
also  "  leave,"  which  begins  to  be  generally  used,  as  a  less  formal  word,  for  depart.) 

Dear  Sir, 

Have  received  your  manuscript,  but  not  had  time  to  examine  it ;  will 
do  so  in  a  few  days,  and  may  have  it  published  if  good.  Tours,  &c. 

7.  Pronoun  Improperly    Used  as  a   Connective. 

A  relative  pronoun  should  never  be  used  as  a  mere  conuective. 

These  evils  were  caused  by  Catiline,  who,  if  he  had  been  punished,  the  re- 
public would  not  have  been  exposed  to  so  great  dangers.  — tJte  punishment  of 
whom  would  have  prevented  the  republic  from,  being  exposed  to  dangers  so  great. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  what  he  is  mistaken,  — that —  There  are  few  things 
so  difficult  but  what  they  may  be  overcome  by  perseverance  and  zeal.  — that 
they  may  not —  There  was  no  profit,  though  ever  so  small,  in  any  thing,  but 
what  he  took  the  pains  to  obtain  it.  He  lived  in  the  same  house  that  we  now 
live,  — in  which —  The  boat  will  leave  at  the  same  time  that  the  cars  do.  — wiU 
have  with  the  cars.  The  passive  verb  will  always  be  of  the  same  mood,  tense, 
] person,  and  number,  tliat  the  verb  to  be  is,  before  it  is  incorporated  with  the  par- 
ticiple. Sir  Alexander  arrived  at  Charleston,  about  the  time  that  Governor 
Burrington  reached  Edenton.  At  the  same  time  that  men  are  giving  their 
orders,  God  is  also  giving  his.  While  men,  &c.  He  has  never  preached,  that 
I  have  heard  of  I  have  never  heard,  &c.  He  has  never  gone  to  see  her,  that 
I  know  oL 


134  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. 0BSERVATI0N3. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

The  Observations  should  always  be  read  orer  carefully  by  the  student,  in  connection 
with  the  preceding  Exercises. 

1.  Where  may  be  used  in  place  of  which  and  a  preposition,  wlien  place  is  the 
predominant  idea.  ^'' The  gravQ  where  [in  which]  our  hero  was  buried." — Wolfe. 
"  The  ancient  house  where  I  was  born." — O.  W.  Holmes.  But  to  say,  "  The  battle 
where  he  was  killed,"  would  be  less  elegant  than  to  say,  "  The  battle  in  which  hw 
was  killed."  In  poetry  and  in  the  familiar  style,  greater  indulgence  is  generally 
allowed;  and  words  of  time  or  cause  are  sometimes  used  in  con  aection  with  ad- 
verbs exactly  corresponding  in  sense.  Such  compounds  as  hereof,  iJiereof.,  wherecf, 
therewith,  wherewith,  are  not  so  common  as  they  were  formerly. 

2.  Terms  of  masculine  terminations,  or  terms  that  have  been  formed  to  denote 
males,  and  that  are  usually  applied  so,  inay  occasionally  be  applied  also  to  females, 
when  there  are  no  peculiar  terms  for  these,  or  whea  we  wish  to  include  the  females 
with  the  males,  and  do  not  speak  of  them  especially  in  regard  to  sex.  It  would  be 
correct  to  say,  "  She  is  a  better  farmer^  and  ma,nager,  and  penman  than  her  hin- 
band  w.is."  Also,  "She  is  my  accuser,  although  our  language  has  the  uncotnmoii 
wor^  acauseress.  "  The  poets  of  America"  may  include  the  poetesses.  When  I 
say,  "She  is  the  best  poetess,''''  I  compare  her  with  female  poets  only;  but  when  I 
say,  "She  is  the  best  poet,''''  I  compare  her  with  both  male  and  female  poets.  To 
brute  animals  and  even  to  spiritual  beings  we  sometimes  apply  it  or  its,  when  we 
speak  of  them  as  things,  or  when  the  sex  is  unimportant  or  not  obvious.  "  Every 
creature  loves  its  like."  Here  neither  his  nor  her  would  express  the  sense  so  well. 
"  Lo  I  there  it  [a  ghost]  comes  !" — Shakespeare. 

Tliere  is  a  peculiar  nature  or  disposition  that  belongs  to  each  sex,  and  on  the- 
analogy  of  this  we  ascribe  life  and  sex  to  abstract  qualities  or  to  inanimate  objects, 
wiiich,  in  reality,  have  no  sex.  Even  it  and  its  are  sometimes  used  in  slight  per- 
ponifications,  in  a  sense  analogous  to  that  which  they  have  when  applied  to  animals 
or  other  living  objects.  In  accordance  with  the  foregoing  principles,  we  sometimes 
speak  of  a  mannish  woman  as  of  a  man,  and  of  an  effaminate  man  as  of  a  woman  ; 
and  of  a  hare,  for  instance,  in  the  feminine  gender  ;  of  a  fox,  in  the  mii^cu- 
line;  &c. 

The  following  examples  may  serve  as  further  illustrations  of  the  subject  t 
"When  Pf«r  to  Britain  bent  Aw'iron  car."  "i^ace  rears  her  oYive  for  industrious 
brows."  '■'■  In  thQ  monarch  Thoughfs  6.om\n\on9,.''''  "i?emorse,  that  tortures  with 
his  scorpion  lash."  "  Or  if  Virtue  feeble  were,  Heaven  itself  would  stoop  to  her.'''* 
"  Why  peeps  your  coward  sword  half  afraid  from  its  sheath."  "  While  Vengeance 
in  thelurid  air  lifts  her  red  arm,  exposed  and  bare." — Collins.  This  last  sentence 
is  allowable,  as  alluding  to  the  Euries. 

In  personifications,  we  are  sometimes  aided  in  ascribing  the  proper  sex  by  re- 
ference to  the  gender  of  the  corresponding  terras  in  the  Classic  languaijes.  But 
this  is  not  always  a  safe  rule.  The  principles  mentioned  above,  should  also  be 
taken  into  consideration.  The  sex  to  be  ascribed  in  per-ioaiflcatioa,  is  sometiiuea 
a  matter  of  great  nicety,  and  must  be  determined  from  the  peculiar  glow  or  senti- 
mental color  of  the  writer's  conceptions. 

3.  Eor  a  person  to  speak  of  himself  before  speaking  of  others,  is  much  the  same 
as  if  he  should  help  himself  first  at  table,  and  then  wait  upon  others.  Instances, 
however,  may  occur,  in  which  it  would  be  proper,  or  even  polite,  to  mention  him- 
self first;  as^when  the  parties  ditfer  much  in  rank,  or  when  the  assertion  implies 
something  burdensome  or  not  desirable. 

To  address  otliers  and  speak  of  them  and  ourselves  in  the  third  person,  usu- 
ally implies  greater  reserve,  courtesy,  and  politeness;  as  in  cards  of  invitation, 
and  the  like  :  but  where  no  such  reserve  or  courtesy  can  be  meant,  as  in  business 
letters  between  familiar  acquaintances,  the  style  of  writing  in  the  third  person  may 
ratlier  tend  to  suggest  contempt. 

Just  here  may  as  well  be  said  a  few  words  about  titles.  Sir,  applied  to 
strangers,  and  also  wlieii  used  after  such  wonls  as  yes,  no,  well,  why,  O,  &c.,  is 
rather  respectful ;  but  when  it  is  applied  to  friends  or  familiars,  it  may  seem  to  dis- 
own the  triendship  or  familiarity,  and  to  req_uest  the  person  to  keep  at  a  proper  or 
respectful  distance :  it  is  apt  to'^be  in  the  spirit  of  tiie  young  lady's  remark  to  her 
long-wooing  and  finally  rejected  lover,  "  I  know  nothing  abb  it  you,  sir."    MiateVf 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS.  135 

■without  the  name,  is  rather  conteinptnous — it  is  nimilar  to  the  conteoiptuous  Sir  ; 
■with  tiie  name  of  a  stranger,  it  is  rather  respectful.  When  it  is  omitted  from  a 
name,  the  expression  may  imply  that  a  very  ordinary  fellow  is  meant — a  fellow  of 
little  importance — of  no  high  respectability — of  rather  low  standing  in  society, — it 
is  somewhat  similar  in  spirit  to  the  word  Jack;  or  it  may  imply  that  the  person  is 
a  very  well-known,  intimate,  and  familiar  acquaintance  or  favorite,  not  only  to  the 
speaker,  but  to  all  present, — suggesting  tliat  great  cordiality,  and  entire  want  of 
formality,  which  are  peculiar  to  the  family  circle ;  or  else  it  may  imply  ttiat  the 
person  is  of  general  or  universal  fame.  Dr.  Johnson  spoke  very  conternptuously 
of  a  certain  man's  taste,  who  had  indexed  his  "  Lives  of  the  Poets"  thus  :  "  MU- 
ton,  Mr.  John ;  Shakespeare,  Mr.  William."  It  also  indicates  sometimes  a  better 
state  of  feelings,  to  address  a  person  by  the  Christian  name  than  by  the  surname. 
So,  if  I  am  on  very  intimate  terms  with  Prof.  Mitchel,  for  instance,  I  should  rather 
prefer  to  call  him,  in  familiar  and  private  conversation,  Mr.  Mitchel.  To  write 
one's  name  with  Mr.  before  it,  would  be  self-conceited  and  ridiculous,  but  to  title 
oneself  as  in  the  following  expressions, — "  I  have  no  card;  please  to  tell  Gov.  Ed- 
wards that  Mr.  Eichardson — Mr.  Phelps  from  Springfield — Capt.  Mitchell — called 
to  see  him,"  -would  be  more  appropriate  and  polite  than  to  give  the  name  simply. 
See  above. 

The  same  remarks  apply,  in  general,  to  the  titles  Miss  and  Mrs.  To  mention  a 
■woman  by  her  surname  only,  is  apt  to  have  a  very  contemptuous  air :  it  usually 
presents  her  as  an  insignificant  or  masculine  personage.  At  parties,  bulls,  &c.,  we 
always  say,  "  gentleman  and  tetZy/,"  and  we  generally  call  the  mistress  of  the  house 
*'  the  ladij  of  the  house;"  bat  a  family  that  should  send  out  cards  with  "  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Morgan  send  their  compliments,"  &c.,  would,  I  think,  show  better  taste  than 
if  the  words  were,  "  Mr.  Morgan  and  lady  send,"  &c. 

Should  we  give  to  a  married  lady  or  to  a  widow  her  own  Christian  name,  or 
that  of  her  husband^  I  think  the  lady's  name  should  be  preferred,  unless  there 
is  some  special  reason  for  using  the  hasbund's.  Tiie  husband's  Christian  name 
may  sometimes  be  more  definite,  better  known,  or  better  suited  to  the  end  in  view. 
When  there  are  two  or  more  Catharine  Johnsons,  they  may  be  best  distinguished 
by  using  their  husbands'  Christian  names.  Our  merchants,  I  believe,  nearly  al- 
•ways  use  the  husband's  Christian  name,  in  directing  parcels  to  married  ladies  ;  not 
merely,  I  suppose,  because  the  husband  is  better  kno"wn,  but  also  because  the 
responsibility  usually  rests  upon  him.  In  England,  it  is  more  common,  I  am  told, 
than  in  the  United  States,  to  use  the  husband's  Christian  name. 

Never,  in  addressing  a  person,  put  a  title  both  before  and  after  the  name. 

4.  It  is  not  always  necessary  to  make  a  noun  plural,  merely  because  it  denotes 
«omething  belonging  to  more  than  one,  or  that  it  may  agree  in  number  with  the 
governing  word.  "God  has  given  us  our  reasons  for  our  own  good."  This  sen- 
tence hardly  expresses  the  intended  meaning.  Better:  "  God  has  given  us  Reason 
for  our  own  good."  Who  would  say,  "  It'was  for  their  goods  that  I  did  it,"  in 
stead  of  "It  was  for  their  good  that  I  did  it"  \  To  say,  "  These  plants  have  their 
■flowers  at  the  top,"  is  ambiguous  :  it  may  mean  that  each  plant  has  but  one  top 
with  but  one  flower,  or,  that  it  has  a  plurality  of  either  or  of  both.  Better: 
"  These  plants  have  the  jlower  at  the  top,  or — "  the  flowers  at  the  tops,''''  or — "  the 
Jlowers  at  the  top,''''  according  to  the  sense.  Language  is  not  a  perfect  instrument ; 
at  least,  we  can  not  always  find  expressions  that  are  exact  or  satisfactory ;  and 
therefore  must  content  ourselves  when  we  have  the  best  expression  the  language 
affords.  Writers  generally  aim  to  make  substantives  that  must  vary  alike  in  num- 
ber, agree  in  this  respect.  Mr.  Goold  Brown  writes,  "  Proper  names,  of  every 
description,  should  always  begin  with  capitals  f  i.  e.,  each  name  with  but  one 
-capital.  Lord  Jetfrey  writes,  "  These  same  circumstances  have  also  perverted  our 
Judgments  with  respect  to  their  characters  f  for  we  have  different  judgments,  and 
they  different  characters.  But,  "Iambic  lines  may  occasionally  begin  with  tro- 
chees," may  suggest  that  each  line  begins  with  two  or  more  trochees ;  therefore 
say,  "  Occasionally,  an  iambic  line  may  begin  with  a  trochee.'^'' 

Two  nouns  making  one  term,  should  never  be  both  made  plural,  unless  the  idea 
of  apposition  is  very  prominent;  as,  "The  lords  proprietors,"  "Knights  Tem- 
plars," {'■'■Knights  Templar'' — Mitchell's  Histoky  of  Fbeemasonby,)  "  men-serv- 
ants, women-servants.''  We  sometimes  find  such  condensed  plurals  as  these : 
"  The  governors  of  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  and  Missouri ;"  "  Tne  earls  of  Arun- 
•del  and  Buckingham,"  i.  e.,  the  earl  of  Arundel  and  the  earl  of  Buckingham.    The 


136  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 

sense  is  obvious,  and  hence  the  expressions  are  allowable ;  Dilt  "  Prescott's  and 
Bancroft's  Histories'''  is  not  necessarily  equivalent  to  "Prescott's  History  and 
Bancroft's  History,"  and  is  hardly  allowable.  "  Prescott  and  Bancroft's  Histo- 
ries" is  as  good  a  phrase  as  "  The  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  and  is  perhaps 
allowable. 

In  imitation  of  an  idiom  in  the  Classic  languages,  we  sometimes  prefer  the 
plural  to  the  singular,  in  order  to  give  the  expression  the  greatest  comprehensive- 
ness possible,  and  hence  greater  force ;  as,  "  He  gained  her  affections,''''  i.  <?.,  her 
whole  heart.  Sometimes  there  is  also  a  variation  in  sense.  "  When  it  was  asked 
whether  a  wealthy  lawyer  had  acquired  his  riches  by  his  practice,  there  was  a  ter- 
rible satire  in  the  answer :  '  Yes,  by  his  practices.''  " — G.  P.  Marsh. 

The  plural,  in  some  instances,  guards  us  against  ambiguity  ;  thus,  "The  oat- 
pouring  of  the  heart,"  may  suggest  either  the  ad  of  pouring  or  the  thing  poured, 
but  "  outpourings''''  is  apt  to  suggest  "  the  things  poured,^''  and  nothing  else. 

Such  expressions  as  "A  ten^/bo^  pole,"  "A  twenty-ce«.i5  piece,"  &c.,  are  proper; 
but  a  hyphen  should  always  be  used  to  connect  the  parts.  The  noun,  in  such  ex- 
pressions, being  used  as  an  adjective,  loses  the  properties  of  a  noun.  If  these  sin- 
fulars  should  be  plural,  then  it  would  not  seem  unreasonable  to  require  he  to  be 
im  or  them  in  the  following  example  :  "  They  brought  Ae-goats." 
The  singular  is  usually  preferred  in  forming  compounds,  but  sometimes  the 
plural;  as,  "A  watch-xmk.&c  (=-a  maker  of  watches),  a  Ao/'se-stealer ;"  but,  "A 
«a^s-man,  a  draughts-msm,  a  savings-ha,nk.^^ 

Since  we  say  two-thirds,  three-fourths,  four-jifths,  &c.,  it  is  more  in  accordance 
with  analogy,  and  also  best,  to  read  such  fractions  as  _5_^  J-^  ^  five  tiventy-firstsy 
seven  thirty-seconds.  (Unhyphened  :  so  are  large  ordinals  ;  &&,"'•'■  Om  hundred  and 
twenty-five.'''') 

^  As  to  the  mode  of  expressing  certain  numeral  terras,  especially  if  long  and  com- 
posite, there  is  not  a  little  diversity  of  practice.  "  Five  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  two." — Dav'ies.  "Fifty-nine  millions  three  hundred  and  ten." — Id.  "Five 
million.^'' — R.  R.  Report.  "  Five  millions.'''' — I'o.  The  sense  of  nouns  and  that  of 
adjectives  meet,  in  such  terms,  like  the  colors  of  the  rainbow  :  it  is  almost  impossi- 
ble to  tell  where  one  ends  or  the  other  begins.  The  form  of  the  term  must  evi- 
dently depend  on  whether  the  number  is  conceived  adject'ively  or  substantively,  that 
is,  whether  in  refereace  to  a  noun,  or  abstractly.  "  Eighty  thousand,  two  hundred 
and  one." — Ray.  "  Four  hundreds,  three  tens,  and  five  units." — Id.  "  Forty-two 
m'iUi/)ns  ivfo  thousand  and  five." — Qreenleaf.  '■'•I'ens  of  Thousands  of  Trillions.'''' 
— Id.  To  decide  the  matter  briefly,  I  would  say.  Let  the  words  be  singular  in 
form,  when  the  whole  is  conceived  as  one  numeral,  or  has  no  intermediate  com- 
mas or  points;  but  let  them  be  plural  in  form,  when  the  number  is  broken  into 
parts,  and  the  phrase  has  commas  or  points.  "Five  hundred  and  thirty-six  mil- 
tow- three  hundred  and  forty-seven  thousand  nine  hundred  and  seventy-two."  — 
Robinson's  Mathematics.  "  Forty-seven  quadrillions,  sixty-nine  billions,  four  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  thousands,  two  hundred  and  seven"  [units]. — Davies.  "  The 
number  of  his  subjects  must  have  been  about  five  million  two  hundred  thousand.'''' 
— Maeaulay.  "To  enslave  five  millions  of  Englishmen," — Id.  "The  population 
of  China  in  1743  was  fifteen  millions  twenty-nine  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty- 
five." —  Wilson's  Treatise  on  Punctuation.  Custom,  in  the  United  States,  perhaps 
prefers  s  from  millions  up,  but  not  down  •  especially  in  round  numbers.  "  The 
Croton  Aqueduct  cost  nine  millions.^^     "  His  house  cost  him  five  thousand.^' 

The  plural  of  words  that  are  spoken  of  merely  as  words,  is  sometimes  written 
with  the  apostrophe  ;  as,  "  Your  composition  has  too  many  and's,  therefore's,  and 
wherefore's."  But  all  such  words  are  better  expressed  by  pluralizin^  them  regu- 
larly, and  Italicizing  them ;  as,  "  Your  composition  has  too  manv  anas,  there/ores, 
and  wherefores.^''  Here  the  meaning  is  sufficiently  obvious.  Yet  if  the  regular 
plural  should  render  the  word  or  its  meaning  liable  to  be  mistaken,  then  I  see  no 
good  reason  for  not  using  the  apostroplie,  or  any  other  means,  to  avoid  the  diffi- 
culty. " The  extract  is  full  of  fti«.«."  Full  of  what?  Perhaps  hya  ox  &y'«  would 
have  been  more  intelligible.  "  The  poem  is  full  o{  fiies  and  cries,^^  is  perhaps  not 
BO  obvious  in  sense  as,  "  The  poem  is  full  of  fifs  and  cry'' 8.^'' 

Words  euding  in  i  or  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  if  they  are  native,  perfectly 
naturalized,  or  well  known,  always  take  es  to  express  the  plural ;  as.  Wo,  woes.^ 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS.  137 

iiero,  heroes;  alkiji,  alkaUes :  but  if  the  words  are  foreign  rather  than  English,  good 
writers  have,  in  many  iaatances,  added  s  only,  to  form  the  plural ;  as,  Teocalli, 
teocallis ;  mufti,  muftis  ;  stiletto,  stilettos.  This  mode  of  pluralizing  has  this  ad- 
vantage :  The  word  not  being  generally  known,  by  annexiu;^  simply  s,  the  reader 
at  once  sees  what  the  singular  is.  Yet  I  think  the  regular  plural  is  always  prefer- 
able, when  there  is  no  liability  of  mistaking  the  singular  form,  or  when  the  word 
is  so  far  naturalized  as  to  have  already  found  its  way  into  our  dictionaries.  We 
Americans  do  not  begrurlge  an  e  to  mulattoes^  yet  clip  mwsquitos  ;  but  the  English 
are  more  consistent,  and  treat  mulattoes  ana '■'■  mosquitoes^  alike,  not  even  regard- 
ing toes. 

5  &  7.  As  there  is  sometimes  an  ellipsis  of  the  finite  verb,  it  is  necessary  to 
'  bear  in  mind  what  verb  is  omitted,  in  order  to  determine  readily  what  the  case 
sliould  be.  "  He  is  wiser  than  I",  [am].  "  She  is  as  good  as  he"  [*5].  "  Who  will 
go  ?    I"  [will  go].     "  Who  was  it  ?    Not  V^It  was  not  I. 

6.  The  sense  of  the  possessive  case  is  usually  expressed  either  by  giving  a  cer- 
tain form  to  the  word  denoting  the  possessor,  or  by  using  o/'and  the  objective  case. 
These  two  forms  should  be  interchanged  in  such  a  way  as  to  relieve  each  other, 
and  avoid  the  inadequacy  and  inelegance  of  either.  I  should  always  endeavor  to 
use,  in  prose,  '^  with  singular  possessive  nouns,  or  else  of.  Though,  "  The  defeat 
of  Xerxes'  army  was  the  downfall,  of  Persia,*'  for  instance,  could  hardly  be  im- 
proved. 

A  noun  or  pronoun,  before  a  participle,  maybe  put  in  the  possessive  case,  when 
the  sense  requires  it,  and  a  better  expression  can  not  be  readily  found.  Such  a 
phrase  is  sometimes  a  very  convenient  one,  if  not  the  most  appropriate  that  can  be 
used  to  convey  the  sense.  Much  depends  on  which  word  conveys  the  idea  upper- 
most in  the  speaker's  mind.  "  What  do  you  think  of  my  pl^\.ntino  corn?"  Is  it 
proper  ?  You  being  a  farmer  as  well  as  I,  would  you  plant  ?  "  What  do  you 
think  of -ME  planting  corn  ?"  Am  I  not  out  of  my  proper  line  of  business  ?  What 
sort  of  farmer  do  I,  or  would  I,  make?  "I  well' remember  Peyton  Randolph'' s  m- 
FoRMi.vG  me  of  the  crossing  of  our  messengers." — Jefferson.  "But  what  »ave  it 
most  interest,  was  its  bei.vo  in  some  way  coxneoted  with  the  pirate  ship." — Irving. 
"There  is  no  doubt  of  m?/  seeing  him."  But  such  uncouth  possessives  as,  "  One 
of  them's  falling  into  a  ditch  was  an  accident" — G-reenleafs  Grammar  ;  "A  place's 
being  at  a  distance" — II.  ;  "  Instead  of  the  mind's  beings  made  to  go  through  with 

this  tedious  process" — Ih., — should  be  avoided:  say,  "  That  one  of  them  fell" ; 

"  The  distance  of  a  place" ;  "  Instead  of  making  the  mind  go  through" . 

Finally,  the  possessive  sign  should  be  used  wherever  there  is  a  noun  expressed 
or  understood  denoting  the  thing  possessed ;  and  a  phrase  explanatory  of  the  pos- 
sessor, should  never  be  placed  between  the  possessing  and  the  governing  noun. 
Sense,  custom,  and  euphony,  should  be  carefully  consulted. 

"  They  praised  the  farmer's,  as  they  called  him.  excellent  understanding, 
Bhould  be,  "  They  praised  the  excellent  understanaing  of  the  farmer,  as  they 
called  him."  The  '"  Lord's  day"  is  Sunday,  but  "  the  day  of  the  Lord"  sometimes 
means  the  Judgment  Day;  "  A  picture  of  Washington"  is  a  likeness  of  him  ;  but 
"A  picture  of  Washington's"  is  one  of  the  pictures  belonging  to  him.  "  Lee's  and 
Allen's  store"=Lee's  store  and  Allen's  store;  "  Lee's  and  Allen's  stores"=Lee's 
stores  and  Allen's  stores ;  Lee  and  Allen's  stores,"  is  ambiguous,  as  it  may  signify 
either  joint  or  separate  possessions.  "  At  Halsall's,  the  bookseller's,  and  station- 
er's," may  suggest  three  different  places ;  but,  "  At  Halsall's,  the  bookseller  and 
stationer,"  can  suggest  but  one  place. 

Poets  write— "  Shiraz' walls,"  "  Pelides'  wrath,"  "x\.jax'  seven-fold  shield," 
"  Douglas's  command,"  "Providence's  sway,"  " The  lance's  crash,"  "Thebes's 
streets." 

9.  The  nominative  most  frequently  precedes  its  verb  ;  and  the  objective  most 
frequently  follows  the  ffoverning  word.  Both  should  be  so  placed  as  to  avoid  am- 
biguity, and  promote  elegance  and  force.  "  I  love  him  as  well  as  you,"  may  mean 
either  "Hove  him  as  well  as  I  love  you,"  or,  "I  love  him  as  well  as  you  love 
him." 

Proiiouus. 

The  use  of  you  for  thou  is  said  to  have  originated  in  this,  that  it  was  formerly  a 
custom  and  an  honor  for  persons  of  rank  and  respectability  to  have  attendants 
about  them,  and  to  be  addressed  accordingly. 

I .  I'hou.,  thy,  thine,  thee,  tJiyself.  ye,  and  you,  your,  yours,  &e.,  should  never  be 


138  NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 

interminj^lecl,  or  used  promiscaously  ia  the  same  sentence.  The  same  remark  ap- 
plies to  the  eliffjreut  relatives.  But  when  one  relative  claime  is  subordinate  to  an- 
other, the  relatives  miy  diifer.  '■''Thou,  must  take  care  v,i  Ihy^ielf ;''''  '■'■You,  must 
take  care  of  yourself.  "  Tney  worship  '  the  Great  ;Spirit,'  who  has  created  them, 
wlio  preserves  theni,  and  to  whom  they  pxpect  to  ^o  after  death."  Bat,  "  There  are 
men  that  have  nothin;^,  who  are  happier  than  he." 

The  predominant  sense  of  who  is,  to  sui^^gjast  persons  or  other  objects  viewed  as 
having  the  rea-t  >a,  sympathy^  and  indiokluality  of  human  beings  ;  of  whioh^  brute 
animals,  or  things,  or  other  objects  viewel  as  things.  That  is  usually  restrictive. 
Whether  it  is  to  b3  preferrei  \o  who  or  lohioh,  may  sometimes  be  determined  by 
some  precedin:;^  word  that  fixes  the  application  of  the  antecedent,  but  more  fre- 
quently by  tiie  sense.  ^Fho  and  which  are  generic ;  that  is  speclac.  TF/w  and 
which  may  sometimes  suggest  the  entire  class  of  objects ;  that  perhaps  never  does, 
but  only  the  part  described  by  its  own  clause.  "  I  do  not  like  men  who  do  mean 
little  actions,"  may  imply  that  all  men  do  mean  little  actions  ;  but,  "  I  do  not  like 
men  that  do  mean  little  actions,"  expresses  the  intended  meaning.  "  I  took  the 
pigeons  which  W3re  white,"  "  He  is  like  a  beast  of  prey  which  destroys  without 
pity,"  "  He  is  a  man  who  is  rich,"  are  not  equivalent  to — "  I  took  the  pigeons  that 
were  white,"  "  He  is  like  a  beast  of  prey  that  destroys  without  pity,"  "  He  is  a  man 
that  is  rich,"  better  "  He  is  a  rich  man."  In  general,  that  is  preferable  when  it  h 
doubtful  whether  who  or  which  sliould  be  used;  also,  when  the  mtention  is,  to  show 
that  a  preceding  word  is  restricted  to  something  particular,  or  to  sometiung  viewed 
in  a  particular  light.  But  when  the  adjective  or  the  conjunction  that  stands  near, 
euphony  may  sometimes  exclude  the  relative  that.  Whether  as  or  that  should  bo 
used  after  same^  depends  often  on  whether  the  verb  of  the  latter  clause  is  omitted 
or  expressed.    "  Yours  is  the  same  as  mine ;"  "  You  have  the  same  that  I  liave." 

The  doctrine  of  the  relative  that^  in  reference  to  who  and  which,  as  taught  in  our 
grammars,  seems  to  rest  on  a  rather  sandy  foundation,  if  we  appeal  to  the  practice 
of  our  best  writers.  I  have  met  with  well-read  people  "  who"  contend  that  who 
should  alwajjs  be  used  in  speaking  of  persons.  And  Lord  Macaulay,  a  remarkably 
accurate  writer,  nearly  always  uses  it  so,  regardless  of  grain. nar.  "  A  strange 
question  was  raise!  by  tlio  very  la^t  pbrjox  who  ought  to  have  raised  it." — Micaa- 
lay.  "  The  highkst  churchmen  who  still  remained  were  Doctor  William  Beveridge, 
Archdeacon  of  Colchester,  who  many  years  later  became  bishop  of  St.  Asaph  .... 
and  Doctor  John  Scott,  the  samk  who  had  prayed  by  the  deathbed  of  Jeffreys." — 
11.  "  No  MAN  ^AaiJ  ever  lived  was,"  &c.— /(i.  "'The  Bishop  of  Salisbury,'  said 
Tillotson,  '  is  one  of  the  BUST  anl  WORST  FRiEXDS  that  I  know.'" — Id.  "The  first 
WORDS  which  he  spoke,"  &o. — Id.     "  T:ie  same  atrocities  which  had,"  &c. — Id. 

The  relative  which  was  formerly  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  to  things.  "  I 
know  that  ye  seek  Jksus,  which  was  crucified." — Bible. 

Whether  was  formerly  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun,  in  referring  to  one  of 
two;  but,  in  this  sense,  which  or  whicheoer  supplies  irs  place  now,  and  it  is  em- 
ployed only  as  a  conjunction  that  usually  corresponds  to  or.  "  Whether  of  the 
twain"=  Which  of  the  two.     "  Whether  lie  will  or  not." 

A  very  practical  rule  in  regard  to  personiAcation  is  the  following  :  "Objects 
represented  as  persons,  take  pronouns  denoting  persons."  When  a  pronoun  re- 
fers to  a  figurative  antecedent,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  whether 
the  literal  or  the  figurative  sense  prevails,  and  to  select  the  pronoun  accordinglv. 
"  He  was  the  aoat.  which  animated  the  party."  "  Brave  souls  !  who  died  for 
liberty."  Wordsworth  says,  of  a  Highland  beauty,  "  She  was  a  conspicuous 
FLOWER,  whom  he  had  sensibility  to  love,  ambition  to  attempt,  and  skill  to  win." 
Macaulay  writes,  "Several  epigrams  were  written  on  the  double-faced  Janus  [the 
name  of  a  statue,  applied  to  a  man],  who,  having  got  a  professorship  by  looking 
one  way,  hoped  to  get  a  bishopric  by  looking  another." 

2.  A  collective  noun,  when  used  to  denote  a  group  of  persons  or  other  beings 
as  one  whole,  is  of  the  neuter  gender,  and  singular  number.  Such  nouns  are 
properly  represented  by  the  pronouns  applicable  to  things  ;  as,  " The  mob  which 
assailed  the  palace,  soon  lost  its  leader." 

Our  language  is  defective  in  not  bavin?,  in  the  third  person,  a  singular  pro- 
noun for  the  common  gender.  Trds  often  leads  to  an  improper  use  of  the  plural 
pronouns  they,  their,  &c. ;  as,  "  Every  member  of  the  church  should  have  their  own 
pews."  In  siioh  cases,  we  must  use  either  the  singular  masculine  pronoun  for  both 
sexes,  or  both  the  masctiline  and  the  feminine,  or  the  neuter,  (if  we  are  speaking 
of  small  aaim!i!s,)  or  wc  must  jdurulize  the  antecedent.     "  Every  servant  knew  his 


NOUNS    AN'D    PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS.  139 

duty. "  "  Every  memlier  of  the  cliurch  should  have  Ids  or  her  own  pew."  "  Every 
animil  loves  its  like."  "  Trie  child  loves  iU  mother."  "  All  the  members  should 
have  their  pews,"  &c.  To  avoid  difficulties  of  construction,  it  may  sometimes  be 
bust  to  recast  gnarly  sentences,  and  express  the  meaning  in  some  other  way. 

^^  Fallmifi'/ ajlower  13  born  to  blush  unseen,  and  waste  its'  sweetness  on  the 
desert  air." — Grajfs  EUgy.  "  In  Ilawick  twinkled  7n.%rhy  a  light,  behind  him  soon 
they  set  in  night." — Scott.  *'  Full  many  a  lady  have  I  eyed  with  best  regard  ;  and 
many  a  time  the  harmony  of  their  tongues  hath  into  bondage  brought  my  too  dili- 
gent ear." — Shakespeare:  Tempest.,  Act  iii,  Seem  1.  Hence,  grammarians  have  said, 
that  when  m%ny  a,  and  the  pronoun  relating  to  it,  occur  in  the  same  clause,  the 
latter  should  be  singular;  if  in  different  clauses,  the  latter  should  [may']  be  plural. 
The  plural  structure  seems  to  violate  the  general  principle  that  governs  the  syntax 
of  every,  each,  no,  nor,  &c. :  but  the  example  quoted  from  Shakespeare,  stands 
doubtless  best  as  it  is  ;  for  the  singular  pronoun  would  seem  to  refer  to  one  partic- 
ular lady,  and  "  many  ladies''^  would  not  suggest  that  the  person  "  fell  in  love" 
from  time  to  time.  In  the  following  example,  however,  quoted  and  justified  by 
Mr.  Goold  Brown,  I  should  rather  use  the  singular  structure  throughout:  "Hard 
has  been  the  fate  o?  mxny  a  great  genius,  that  [,]  while  they  have  conferred  immor- 
tality on  others,  they  have  wanted  them'ielves  some  friend  to  embalm  tJieir  names  to 
posterity." —  Welwood.  I  should  prefer  the  plural  pronoun,  only  when  it  obviously 
conveys  the  sense  better. 

3  &  4.  The  relative  properly  relates  to  the  nearest  substantive,  before  it,  that 
it  can  represent  so  as  to  make  sense  ;  and  it  should  generally  stand  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  its  antecedent.  "  Tiiere'was  very  little  theory  in  the  discourse  that  pleased 
me."  "The  man  forsook  his  wife,  who  had  always  been  kind  and  affectionate." 
The  ambiguity  of  these  sentences  might  have  been  avoided  by  a  ditferent  arrange- 
ment of  the  parts.  "  There  was,  in  the  discourse,  very  little  theory  that  pleased 
me  ;"  "  There  was  very  little  theory  that  pleased  me,  in  the  discourse ;"  "  In  the 
discourse  that  pleased  me,  there  was  very  little  theory."  "  The  man,  who  had  al- 
ways been  kind  and  affectionate,  forsook  his  wife ;"  "  His  wife,  who  had  always 
been  kind  and  affectionate,  the  man  forsook."  When  ambiguity  can  not  be 
avoided  by  the  arrangement  of  the  words,  the  noun  itself  must  be  used,  or  the 
meaning  must  be  expressed  by  a  different  sentence.  "The  lad  can  not  leave  his 
father ;  for  if  he  should  leave  his  father,  the  father  would  die."  When  two  or 
more  antecedents  are  introduced  into  a  sentence,  which  denote  different  objects, 
and  are  not  capable  of  being  distinguished  by  the  pronouns  relating  to  them,  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  avoid  the  entangling  of  the  pronouns,  or  to  make  the 
structure  satisfactory.  By  judicious  arrangement  and  repetition,  the  difficulty  may 
generally  be  avoided ;  and  rather  than  make  the  sentence  clumsy  by  repetition,  I 
think  it  may  sometimes  be  better  even  to  let  the  pronouns  stand,  provided  the 
meaning,  though  liable  to  gramm/itical  ambiguity,  is  yet  sufficiently  obvious  to 
ordinary  common  sense.  To  avoid  obscurity,  it  is  sometimes  better  to  use  a  suit- 
able no'un,  than  a  pronoun  representing  the  noun  as  suggested  by  the  use  of  an 
adjective,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause.  "  I  admit  he  is  sagacious  in  trouble,  but  it  can 
not  save  him  now."     Say,  "  but  his  sagacity^''''  &c. 

In  such  expressions  as  "It  was  not  I,  that  said  so,"  "  It  was  he,  that  said  so," 
the  genuine  antecedent  of  that  is  undoubtedly  "A"  But  sometimes,  by  a  sort  of 
attraction,  the  relative  agrees  with  the  nearest  substantive.  "  'Tis  these  that  early 
taint  the  female  mind."  "  It  is  thex"  and  their  posTKitixr  who  are  to  suffer."  Some"- 
titnes,  however,  there  is  evidently  a  difference  in  sense :  as,  "  It  is  not  I,  that 
does  it ;  "  It  is  not  I  that  do  it." 

The  following  sentences  differ  in  meaning  :  "  I  am  the  general,  who  give  orders 
to-viav ;"  "  I  am  the  general,  who  gives  orders  to-day."  By  the  first,  you  learn 
that  lam  the  general;  by  the  second,  that  it  is  my  business  to  give  the  orders.  Mr. 
hutler's  Remark,  "A  relative  pronoun  which  modifies  the  subject,  should  not  be 
placed  after  a  noun  in  the  pi'edicate,"  is  too  stringent  on  the  liberty  of  writers, 
and  would  condemn  sentences  that  are  good  English.  At  least,  Spenser's  "Fairy 
Queen"  condemns  the  doctrine. 

The  position  of  pronouns  is  sometimes  rather  troublesome.  Suppose  I  wish 
to  say,  "In  the  Athens  of  America,"  with  an  emphasis,  on  "  Athens,"  expressed 
by  "itself."  I  can  not  say,  "In  the  Athens  itself  of  America,"  nor,  "In  the 
Athens  of  America  itself,"  but  must  avoid  the  expi-ession,  and  say,  "  In  the  very 
Athans  of  America." 

7 


140  ARTICLES. 

5.  The  pronoun  may  Bometimes  be  elegantly  used  with  the  noun,  when  we 
wish  first  to  draw  the  attention  emphatically  to  the  object  itself,  and  then  to  sav 
Bomethmg  of  it.  "Beautiful  Mary  Porter, — where  is  she  now!"  "My  bank.-4 
they  are  furnished  with  bees."  "  Harry's  flesh  it  fell  away."  This  phraseology 
is  more  allowable  in  poetry  or  impassioned  discourse  than  in  any  other  kind. 

Compound  relatives  suggest  by  means  of  their  termination  au  indefinite  or  uni- 
versal antecedent,  and  hence  they  are  not  usually  accompanied  by  an  antecedent ; 
as,  "  Whoever  lives  temperately,  will  be  apt  to  live  long."  Even  the  simple  rela- 
tive sometimes  sufficiently  suggests  the  antecedent ;  as,  "  WJio  steals  my  purse, 
steals  trash."  A  relative  pronoun,  in  the  objective  case,  may  sometimes  be  el-e- 
gantly  omitted  ;  as,  "There  is  the  man  I  want  to  see,"  for,  "  There  is  the  man 
who?n  I  want  to  see."  "  I  have  brought  a  basket  to  cai-ry  it  -i/i."  "  There  is 
nothing  to  judge  %."  But  to  omit  the  preposition  and  the  relative,  is  inelegant 
or  improper;  as,  "In  the  condition  I  was  tlien,"  better,  "In  the  condition  in 
which  I  was  then."  .  The  relative  that  is  frequently  used  improperly,  without  a 
governing  word,  as  a  mere  connective.  "  At  the  "^same  time  that  the  meat  was 
roasting,  the  bread  was  baking ;"  better,  "  While  the  meat  was  roasting,"  &c. 
What  or  but  what  should  not  be  used  in  the  place  of  tJuit.  "  I  could  not  believe 
but  what  [otherwise  than  that]  you  had  been  sick  ;"  "  I  have  no  doubt  but  what 
[that]  you  will  succeed." 

Some  grammarians  condemn  such  use  of  the  personal  pronouns  as  is  shown  in 
the  following  sentence  :  '■^Falstuf.  It  [sack]  ascends  me  into  the  brain  ;  dries  me 
there  all  the  foolish  and  dull,  and  crudy  vapors  which  environ  it,  makes  it  appre- 
hensive, quick,  and  inventive,  full  of  nimble,  fiery,  and  delectable  shapes." — 
Shakespeare.  But  I  think  such  sentences  should  not  be  disturbed.  The  usage  was 
good  in  its  time,,  and  the  pronoun  imparts  a  peculiar  earnestness  and  quaiiitness, 
that  could  not  be  expressed  so  weU  by  any  other  means. 

6.  Poets  sometimes  omit  the  nominative  relative;  as,  "It  was  a  tall  young  oys- 
termau  a  lived  by  the  river-side" — 0.  W.  Holmes ;  and  in  certain  kinds  of  sen- 
tences, the  nominative  pronoun  is  usually  omitted  after  hut  or  than;  as,  "  There  ia 
not  a  child  but  knows  the  way,"  "  You  have  broaght  more  than  is  needed." 

It  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  the  subject  before"  the  second  of  two  connected 
verbs  that  differ  in  mood  or  tense,  or  imply  contrast,  unless  the  parts  are  unusually 
long,  or  the  contrast  is  marked  and  emphatic.  "  Many  of  them  were  of  good  fami- 
lies, and  had  held  commissions  in  the  civil  war.  Their  pav  ivas  far  higher  than  that 
of  the  most  favored  regiment  of  our  time,  and  would  in  that  ag:e  have  been  thought  a 
respectable  provision  for  the  son  of  a  country  gentleman." — Macaulay.  "  So  large 
a  sum  was  expended,  but  expended  in  vain." — Id. 

We  sometnnes  find  hasty  letters,  especially  from  business  men,  written  with- 
out personal  pronouns  in  the  nominative  case,  wherever  these  can  be  inferred  from 
the  context.  This  style  is  condemned  by  all  grammarians,  and  therefore  should 
be  avoided.  Yet  in  favor  of  it  may  be  urged — 1.  Some  foreign  languages  usually 
omit  the  nominative  pronouns  from  their  verbs;  2.  Tiresome  repetition  and  an 
egotistical  air  are  somewhat  avoided,  without  leaving  the  sense  obscure  ;  3.  Good 
authors  sometimes  use  this  style,  or  what  is  equivalent  to  it,  when  their  discourse 
is  fragmentary,  and  designed  to  appear  hasty,  or  full  of  sprightliness  and  vivacity. 

Ex. — "  Tender-eyed  blonde.  Long  ringlets.  Cameo  pin.  Locket.  Bracelet. 
Album.  Beads  Byron,  Tupper,  and  Sylvanus  Cobb,  junior,  while  her  mother 
makes  the  puddings.    Says,  '  Yes?'  when  yoa  tell  her  anything." — 0.  W.  Holmes. 


6.  ARTICLES. 

?  193.  An  article  is  a  word    placed    before  a  substantive   to 
show  how  it  is  applied. 

Ex. — Horses ;  the  horse,  a  horse,  the  horses.     A  good  one  ;  the  others. 
"  From  liberty  each  nobler  science  sprung, 
A  Bacon  brightened,  and  a  Spenser  sung." — Savage. 

Article  literally  means  joint.    The  Greeks,  who  Riivo  the  name,  frequently  used  nouns  wilt  iM» 
cle  on  each  side ;  lust  as  we  might  say,  "  I  saw  tltat  steam  '  ,  ,  .  .. 

thus  used,  is  not  unlike  the  pait  of  a  limb  between  two  johits. 


ARTICLES. 


141 


•  Only  two  words  in  our  language  are  called  articles:  the,  the 
definite  article  ;  and  a  or  an,  the  indefinite. 

?  194.  The  points  out  a  particular  object  or  class,  or  a  par- 
ticular one  or  portion  of  a  class. 

Ex. — The  man,  the  men ;  the  large  wagon.  "  The  sun  and  the  moon."  "  The 
fowls  of  the  air  and  the  fishes  of  the  sea."  "The  Hon  is  nobler  than  the  hyena." 
*'  The  statesman  should  be  honored, as  well  as  the  soldier."  "  Tlie  Delawares  and 
the  Cherokees  are  Indiana  almost  civilized."  "  The  poor  and  the  rich,  the  wise 
and  the  ignorant." 

?  195.  It  sometimes    precedes  a  proper  noun,  to  render  it  suf- 

ficiently  definite ;  or  else  it  points  out  a  certain  object  as  already 

known  or  heard  of,  or  as  preeminently  distinguished. 

Ex. — '■'■Missonri  and  Ohio  mean  States ;  but  the  Missouri  and  the  Ohio  mean 
rivers."  "The  Fulton  went  up  the  river  this  morning."  "  The  Turk  was  dream- 
ing of  the  hour."    "  The  generous  Lafayette  and  the  noble  Washington." 

?  196.  The  may  relate  to  either  a  singular  or  a  plural  word. 
Ex. — The  river,  the  rivers ;  the  four  men,  the  fourth  man  ;  the  one,  the  others. 

?  197.  A  or  an  shows  that  no  particular  one  of  a  class  is  meant. 

Ex. — A  man,  a  bird,  a  wagon,  an  owl,  a  plum;  a  small  picture.  "He  was  a 
merchant."  It  siiargests  that  there  are  others  of  the  same  kind,  and  also  that  there 
are  other  kinds  of  objects. 

?  198.  Sometimes  the  predominant  idea  is  any,  sometimes  one. 
Ex. — "^  man  may  lose  all  his  property  in  a  year"=»^7iy  man  may  lose  all  his 
property  in  one  year. 

?  199.  A  or  an  can  be  used  to  point  out  one  only,  or  one 
aggregate.  Sometimes  more  are  spoken  of,  but  they  are  still  con- 
sidered one  by  one. 

Ex. — "  A  penf  not,  A  pens.  "  An  idler  ;  a  large  orange  ;  a  dozen  apples  ;  a 
wealthy  people ;  a  few  dimes."  "  I  gave  for  the  marbles  a  dime  a  dozen."  "  We 
paid  for  the  mules  a  hundred  dollars  a  head.' ' 

When  a  noun  is  limited  by  other  words,  the  indefinite  article  affects  not  the 
noun  alone,  but  the  noun  thus  limited.  "A  yoang  man,"  "A  man  of  fine  sense," 
do  not  mean  no  particular  man  ;  but,  no  particular  yoang  man,  no  particular  man 
of  fine  sense. 

?  A  and  an  are  both  called  the  indefinite  article,  because  they 
are  but  a  later  and  an  earlier  form  of  the  same  word,  have  the  same 
meaning,  and  differ  in  use  only. 

?  200  Before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound,  an  should 
be  usedi  Before  a,  e,  «,  o,  u  not  equivalent  to  yu,  y  articulated 
with  a  consonant  after  it,  silent  A,  and  h  faintly  sounded  when 
the  next  syllable  has  the  chief  accent. 

Ex. — "^«-  arm ;  an  ear  of  corn  ;  an  idle  boy  ;  an  orange ;  an  urn  ;  an  hour  ; 
an  heroic  deed." 

?  201.  Before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant  sound,  a  should 
be  used.  U  long,  eu,  w,  o  in  one,  and  y  articulated  with  a  vowel 
after  it,  have  each  a  consonant  sound. 

Ex.-  ''^  brother,  a  oup,  a  union  ;  a  eulogy  ;  a  yearling ;  a  word  ;  a  one-horse 
carriage. 


142  ARTICLES. EXERCISES. 

?  202.  No  article  is  used  when  we  refer  chiefly  to  the  nature  of 
the  object,  to  the  class  generally,  or  to  only  a  part  indefinitely  ;  also 
when  the  substantive  is  sufficiently  definite  itself,  or  is  rendered  so 
by  other  words. 

Ex. — '■'■Meat  is  dearer  than  Sreosi."  "Goldh  heavier  than  siZ«er."  "He  took 
waUr^  and  changed  it  into  wine.''''  '•'Peaches  are  better  than  apjjles.''''  "  Virtue  and 
v'w^ii  are  O'pposites.''''  "  Work'mg  is  better  than  steaUng  or  starving.''''  "Man  is  en 
dowed  with  r<?a*o/2.."  "  There  are  ,^.s'A<?s  with  ■wings.''''  "  Jolin,  George,  '76  ;  that 
tree;  this  tree;  every  tree ;  some 'trees  ;  all  trees;  Post  Office."  '■'Words  that 
breathe."     "They  were  the  means  by  which  ;"  not,  the  ivhich. 

General  Illustration. — "  From  the  beorinning  of  the  world,  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  predictions  had  announced  and  prepared  the  long-expected  coming  of 
the  Messiali,  who,  in  compliance  with  the  gross  apprehensions  ^of  t\w  Jews,  had 
been  more  frequently  represented  under  the  character  of  a  king  and  conqueror,  than 
under  that  of  a  prophet,  a  martyr,  or  the  son  of  God." — Gibbon's  Borne. 

?  Articles,  being  used  to  aid  nouns,  are  said  to  belong  to  them.  When 
the  article  stands  only  before  the  first  of  two  or  more  connected  nouns, 
It  belongs  to  them  jointly,  if  they  denote  but  one  person  or  thing,  or 
more  viewed  as  one ;  if  not,  it  belongs  to  the  first  noun,  aud  is  understood 
before  the  others. 

Ex.— "I  saw  Webster,  the  great  statesman  and  orator."  "Of  books  I  ^m  a 
borrower  and  lender."  "  A  man  and  horse  passed  by  the  house  aad  lot."  "  A 
man,  a  woman,  and  a  child  were  drowned." 

?    Tiie  is  socQetiraes  an  adverb ;  a,  a  preposition ;  and  an,  a  conjunction. 

Ex. — "The  stronger^the  better."  "  To  go  a  [at]  hunting."  "Falstaef.  An  1 
have  not  tunes  made  on  you  all,  and  sung  to  fifty  tunes,  may  a  cup  of  sack  bo 
my  poison." — Shakespeare. 


EXERCISES. 
Examples  to  be  Analyzed  and  Parsed. 

Parse  the  articles : — 

The  cat  caught  a  mouse.  A  crow  flew  over  the  valley.  The  oxen 
are  grazing  on  the  meadow.  The"  lion  roams  in  Africa.  The  lion  killed 
his  keeper.  The**  Grasconade  is  exceedingly  clear  and  beautiful.  The 
Highland  Mary  leaves  St.  Louis  to-day.  The  ancients  did  not  know  the 
use  of  the  compass.  A°  beautiful  white  house  gleamed  from  the  summit 
of  the  adjacent  hill.  A  free  people  should  be  jealous  of  their  liberties. 
I  have  bought  a<*  dozen  chickens.  The  lambs  were  sold  for  a  dollar  a 
head.  The"  bright  stars  without  number  adorn  the  sky.  We  send  ex- 
ports to  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

(a.) iefimte,  it  refers  to  '*  lio'n^*  as  denoting  a  particular  kind  of  animals ;  and  belonps 

to  " lion"  &c.    (b.) definite,  it  refers  to  "Gasconade"  ag  denoting  a  particubir  river ;  and 

belonKS  to  it,  &c.    (c.) indefinite,  it  does  not  refer  to  "  beautiful  lohite  house"  as  denoting 

a  particular  one  of  the  kind ;  and  belongs  to  "  house,"  according  to  Rule  X.      (d.)  in- 
definite, no  particular  "dozen  chickens"  are  meant :  &c.     (e.)  definit-e,  the  reference  is 

to  "  stars"  as  denoting  a  particular  class  of  things. 


ARTICLES. EXERCISES. 


143 


Examples  to   bo  Corrected. 

All  the  liabilities  to  error  in  regard  to  articles,  may  bo  reduced  to  the  follow- 
ing heads : — 

1.  When  not  used.  2.  When  the  definite  article  should  he 
used.  3.  When  the  indefinite  article  should  be  used.  4.  Whether 
A  or  AN  should  he  used.  5.  Improper  use  q/"  a  or  an  hefore  plu- 
rals. 6.  When  the  article  should  not  he  repeated.  1.  When  the 
article  should  he  repeated. 

1.   When  not   Used. 

No  article  is  used, — 

1.  When  the  mind  considers  an  object  in  reference  to  its  nature  or 
character,  rather  than  as  an  individual  to  be  distinguished  from  others,  or 
from  something  else.  Or:  When  the  noun  answers  to  what  rather  than 
to  who  or  which. 

2.  When  the  mind  refers  to  the  whole  species  generally,  or  to  only  a 
part  indefinitely. 

3.  When  the  substantive  is  sufficiently  definite  by  itself,  or  is  rendered 
so  by  other  limiting  words. 

a.  The  article  is  sometimes  elegantly  omitted  from  titular  phrases  or 
from  other  familiar  expressions,  when  the  omission  can  lead  to  no  miscon- 
ception of  the  meaning. 

What  sort  of  a  man  is  he?  He  is  a  different  sort  of  a  man.  What  kind 
of  an  article,  then,  would  you  call  a?  We  found  him  a  very  worthy  good  sort 
of  an  old  man.  — a  very  worthy  good  old  man.  Such  a  man  does  not  deserve 
the  name  of  a  gentleman.  The  highest  officer  of  a  State  is  styled  a  G-overnor. 
They  hated  tlie  name  of  a  Stuart.  Santa  Anna  ruled  over  the  nation,  under 
the  title  of  a  Dictator.  The  original  signification  of  knave  was  a  boy.  The 
pink,  the  rose,  and  the  lily,  are  the  names  of  certain  species  of  a  flower.  The 
weather  is  getting  cool  enough  for  a  fire.  Of  these  twins,  I  never  can  tell  the 
one  from  the  other.  He  was  drowned  in  the  attempting  to  cross  the  Missis- 
sippi. A  wise  man  will  avoid  the  showing  any  excellence  in  trifles.  This 
tree  is  worth  the  planting — the  being  planted.  The  stray  horses  are  posted  at 
this  place.  (Of  course  not  all ;  nor  can  they  be  contrasted  with  any  otlier  class 
of  horses.)  Reason  was  given  to  a  man  to  control  his  passions.  (Of  course  to 
more  than  one.)  I  had  a  reference  to  the  other.  You  may  avoid  offensive 
expressions  by  a  circumlocution.  These  foreigners,  in  the  general,  are  peaceful 
and  industrious.  You  may  send  the  letter  by  the  mail.  (No  particular  mail 
was  meant.)  The  whites  of  America  are  the  descendants  of  the  Europeans ; 
but  the  blacks  are  the  descendants  of  the  Africans.  A  neuter  verb  can  not  be- 
come a  passive.  These  sketches  are  not  imaginary,  but  taken  from  the  life. 
The  law  by  the  which  they  were  condemned.  It  would  take  a  half  a  day  to 
do  it.  The  ancients  believed  the  fire,  the  air,  the  earth,  and  the  water,  to  be 
the  elements  of  all  other  material  things. 

2.    When  the  Definite  Article  should  he   Used, 

The  definite  article  is  used, — 

1.  To  make  the  following  noun  sufficiently  definite  for  denoting  a  par- 
ticular object  as  distinguished  from  others  of  the  same  kind,  or  from  some- 
thing else. 

2.  To  show  that  the  whole  is  meant,  or  that  all  of  the  kind  are  meant. 


144  ARTICLES. EXERCISES. 

"Women  who  never  take  any  exercise,  necessarily  become  invalids.  Tha 
women  who —  or,  Women  that,  &c.  Persons  who  have  been  instructed  in  col- 
leges, are  said  to  have  a  collegiate  education.  The  work  is  designed  for  the 
use  of  persons  who  may  think  it  merits  a  place  in  their  libraries.  No  account 
is  given  of  such  an  event  by  historians  who  lived  at  that  time.  Modes  of 
traveling  in  the  last  century  were  far  inferior  to  ours.  Wisest  and  best  men 
sometimes  commit  errors.  John  Simonds  [a  boat]  left  for  New  Orleans  yester- 
day. They  forbid  wearing  of  rings  and  jewels.  Convert  sinners  without  shed- 
ding of  blood.  Great  benefit  may  be  derived  from  reading  of  good  books.  A. 
neglecting  of  our  own  affairs,  and  a  meddUng  with  those  of  others,  are  the 
sources  of  many  troubles.  The  Indians  are  descendants  of  tlie  aborigines  of 
this  country.  A  pronoun  is  a  part  of  speech  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  noun. 
A  violet  is  an  emblem  of  modesty.  A  lion  is  bold,  a  cat  is  treacherous,  and  a 
dog  is  faithful.  Sometimes  one  article  is  improperly  used  for  another.  "Who 
breaks  a  butterfly  upon  a  wheel  ?  (  WJieel  here  means  a  peculiar  engine  for  tor- 
turing. Tliere  is  also  reference  to  other  kinds  of  punishment.)  I  have  a  right 
to  do  it.     (The  universal  abstract  was  meant.) 

3.    When  the  Indefinite  Article  should  he    Used, 

The  indefinite  article  is  used — 

To  show  that  no  particular  one  is  meant,  implying  that  there  are  or  may- 
be others.  Its  various  meanings  range  through  the  substitutes  owe,  any, 
all,  each,  every,  and  the  phrase — this,  and  not  any  thing  else. 

a.  When  a  is  used  before  few  or  little,  the  meaning  is,  some  at  least. 

h.  "When  no  article  is  used  before  few  or  little,  the  meaning  is,  none,  or 
almost  none. 

The  profligate  man  \?.  seldom  or  never  found  to  be  the  good  husband,  the 
good  father,  or  the  beneficent  neighbor.  In  Holland,  great  part  of  the  land  has 
been  rescued  from  the  sea.  He  received  only  the  fourth  part  of  the  estate.  The 
interest  is  the  tenth  part  of  the  sum.  A  pronoun  is  the  word  used  for  a  noun. 
A  librarian  is  the  person  who  has  charge  of  a  hbrar3\  Avoid  the  too  frequent 
repetition  of  the  same  word.  Sometimes  the  adjective  becomes  a  substantive, 
and  has  another  adjective  joined  to  it.  An  articulate  sound  is  the  sound  of  the 
human  voice,  formed  by  the  organs  of  speech.  Contrast  makes  each  of  the 
contrasted  objects  appear  in  the  stronger  light.  To  the  business  of  others  I 
give  but  a  little  attention.  A  httle  respect  should  be  paid  to  those  wlio  deserve 
none.  Are  not  my  days  a  few  ?  A  few  men  of  his  age  enjoy  so  good  health. 
So  bold  a  breach  of  conduct  called  for  little  severity  in  punishing  the  oflender. 

4.    Whether  A  or  An  should  he   Used. 

1.  A  should  be  used  before  consonant  sounds. 

2.  An  should  be  used  before  vowel  sounds. 

a.  A  word  beginning  with  the  consonant  sound  of  w  or  of  y,  is  to  be 
treated  as  if  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  as,  One,  union,  eulogy. 

b.  A  word  beginning  with  h  sounded,  and  having  the  accent  on  the 
second  syllable,  is  usually  treated  as  if  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as,  Heroic^ 
hyena,  hiatus,  hereditary. 

Ho  had  a  interest  in  the  matter.  It  was  a  humble  and  dutiful  petition  to 
the  throne.  Argus  is  said  to  have  had  an  hundred  eyes.  An  African  or  sax 
European.  An  heretic ;  a  heretical  opinion.  A  harangue.  A  hyena.  A  hia- 
tus. A  harmonious  flow  of  words.  Is  it  an  i  or  an  u  ?  An  history ;  a  histo- 
rical account ;  a  historian.       A  heroic  poem.       A  hyperbole.       A  hypothesis. 


ARTICLES. EXERCISES.  145 

An  hexagon ;  a  hexagonal  figure.  There  was  not  an  human  bomg  on  the  place. 
An  hopeful  young  man.  An  unity  of  interest.  I  would  not  make  such  an 
use  of  it.       It  was  not  such  an  one  as  I  wanted. 

5.  Improper   Use  of  k.  or  An  before  Plurals. 

The  indefinite  article  should  never  be  so  used  as  to  appear  to  have  a 
plural  signification.     Insert  words,  omit  words,  or  change  the  term. 

A  winding  stairs  led  us  to  the  Senate  Chamber.  A  flight  of,  &c.  I  saw  her 
trim  her  nails  with  a  scissors.  — a  pair  of —  The  next  object  was,  to  provide 
a  head-quarters.  The  farm  was  a  long  ways  from  town.  The  right  wing  en- 
camped behind  a  small  woods.  I  saw  a  snuffers  lying  on  the  mantel-piece. 
This  idiom  is  a  remains  of  the  Saxon  dialect.  Let  us  make  a  little  memoranda 
of  it.  A  few  miles  from  the  river  is  a  large  swamp,  or  flats.  The  problem 
can  not  be  solved  from  such  a  data.  A  long  minutiaj  of  detail  made  the  story 
very  tedious.  About  a  two  days  afterwards  the  legates  returned  to  CjBsar. 
Tlie  child  was  not  a  three  weeks  old,  when  it  died.  The  Jews  were  permitted 
to  return  to  their  country,  after  a  seventy  years  of  captivity  at  Babylon.  — a 
captivity  of  seventy  years —  An  eight  years'  war  was  the  consequence.  "With 
such  a  spirit  and  intrigues  was  the  war  carried  on.  — and  such  intrigues — 
Tlie  cottage  was  fringed  by  a  very  handsome  eaves.  A  mother  and  children 
were  captured  by  the  Indians.  — and  her  children —  A  neat  house  and  gar- 
dens were  thus  sold  for  a  trifle.  My  friend  bought  a  house  and  lots  in  the 
suburbs  of  St.  Louis. 

Kemark. — Allowdble:  "Never  did  a  set  of  rascals  travel  further  to  find  a  gal- 
loiDs.''''  —Irving.  "The  draught  of  air  performed  the  function  of  a  bellows.'''' — Br. 
Bobertson.    Irving  also  has  the  phrase  "  a  tongd."     See  Number.s,  p.  106. 

6.  When  the  Article  should  not  he  Repeated. 

7.  When  the  Article  should  be  Repeated. 

1.  When  the  repetition  of  the  article  would  suggest  more  objects  than 
are  meant,  the  article  should  be  omitted. 

2.  When  tlie  omission  of  the  article  would  not  suggest  all  the  objects 
meant,  the  article  should  be  repeated. 

3.  The  article  is  elegantly  omitted  to  show  that  the  objects  are  joined,  or 
comprehended  in  one  view. 

4.  The  article  is  elegantly  inserted  to  show  that  the  objects  are  separate, 
distinct,  or  opposite  ;  or  that  they  are  viewed  so. 

5.  When  the  article  relates  to  a  series  of  terms,  it  should  precede  the 
whole  series,  or  else  each  term  of  the  series. 

The  forsaken  may  find  another  and  a  better  friend.  My  friend  was  married 
to  a  sensible  and  an  amiable  woman.  The  matter  deserves  an  impartial,  a 
careful,  and  a  thorough  investigation.  Everett,  the  scholar,  the  statesman,  and 
the  orator,  should  be  invited.  The  white  and  black  inhabitants  amount  to 
several  thousands.  A  hot  and  cold  spring  issued  from  the  same  mountain. 
The  sick  and  wounded  were  left  at  this  place.  The  Eastern  and  the  "Western 
('ontiuents.  The  Eastern  and  Western  Continent.  The  first  and  the  last  pay- 
ments are  the  two  in  dispute.  Give  the  possessive  and  the  objective  cases  of 
who — the  possessive  and  objective  case  of  who.  .  The  Old  and  New  Testament. 
The  Old  and  the  New  Testaments.  Macaulay  is  not  so  good  a  poet  as  an  his- 
torian. He  is  not  so  good  a  statesman  as  a  soldier.  She  is  not  so  good  a 
cook  as  a  washerwoman.  I  am  a  better  arithmetician  than  a  grammarian. 
The  figure  is  a  globe,  a  ball,  or  a  sphere.       Is  this  a  v,  a,  or  u?      A  Philosoph- 


146  ,  ARTICLES. EXERCISES. 

ical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  our  Ideas  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful.  The 
Latin  introduced  between  the  Conquest  and  reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth.  {"Gon- 
quesV  refers  to  William  the  Conqueror,  not  to  Henry.)  In  my  last  lecture  I 
treated  of  the  concise  and  diftuse,  the  nervous  and  feeble  manner.  The  black 
and  red  soil  will  produce  the  best  crops.  (Two  kinds  of  soil  were  meant.)  A. 
horse  and  a  buggy  went  up  to  the  house.  Here,  at  different  times,  the  parents 
had  buried  a  sou  and  daughter.  He  understands  neither  the  Latin  or  Greek 
languages.  — neither  the  Latin  language  nor  the  Greek.  (Parts  compared,  con- 
trasted, or  distinctly  noticed,  should  be  expressed  with  equal  fullness.)  The 
poor  as  well  as  rich,  the  liigh  and  low,  the  wise  and  ignorant,  would  be  beue- 
lited  by  such  a  law.  Both  the  house  and  barn  were  consumed  by  fire.  He 
has  distinguished  himself  both  as  a  teacher  and  scholar.  Neither  the  poor  nor 
rich  are  completely  happy.  You  must  shoot  a  bear  either  through  the  heart 
or  brain.  — or  through  the  hrain.  Let  us  make  a  distinction  between  the  loss 
and  expense.  There  is  little  difference  between  a  catamount  and  leopard-cat. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  the  demagogue  from  statesman.  Not  the  use, 
but  abuse,  of  worldly  things,  is  sinful.  The  young,  as  well  as  old,  may  sicken 
and  die.  It  was  not  the  loss,  but  dishonor,  that  grieved  him.  We  are  the 
Mends,  not  enemies,  of  tlie  Institution,  I  would  rather  pluck  a  lily  than 
rose.  I  would  rather  hear  the  whippoorwill  than  katydid.  The  one  or  other  . 
of  the  two.  There  is  not  a  tree  in  the  yard,  nor  flower  in  the  garden.  The 
hum  of  bees,  and  songs  of  birds,  fell  sweetly  upon  my  ear.  Was  the  man  fined, 
and  damage  paid  ?  The  oak,  ash,  maple,  elm,  and  the  hickory,  are  the  prin- 
cipal trees  of  this  State,  Such  a  law  would  be  injurious  to  the  farmer,  me- 
chanic, and  the  merchant.  Gome  is  an  irregular  transitive  verb  ;  found  in  tlie 
indicative  mood,  the  present  tense,  third  person,  and  singular  number. 

Remark. — Avoid  such  an  arrangement  of  terms  as  will  make  the  article  relate 
to  some  to  which  you  do  not  mean  to  apply  it.  Example  :  "  I  was  thinking  of  the 
Bolar  system,  time,  and  space ;"  i.  ^,,  tne  solar  system,  the  solar  time,  and  the  so- 
lar space.  But  the  author  meant  to  say,  "  1  was  thinking  of  time,  space,  and  the 
solar  system." 

Miscellaneous  Examples. 

I  have  had  a  dull  sort  of  a  headache  all  day.  The  Tennessee,  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  the  Missouri,  are  all  the  names  derived  from  the  Indian  languages. 
The  violation  of  this  ruie  never  fails  to  displease  a  reader.  A  or  an  is  sometimes 
used  to  convey  an  idea  of  unity.  By  adding  s  to  dove,  we  make  it  a  plural. 
When  a  whole  is  put  for  the  part,  or  the  part  for  a  whole ;  a  genus  for  the  spe- 
cies, or  the  species  for  a  genus  ;  a  singular  for  a  plural,  or  a  plural  for  a  singu- 
lar, the  figure  is  called  a  synecdoche.  Surely  there  is  little  satisfaction  in  the 
having  caused  another's  ruin.  She  contributed  a  thousand  dollars  to  build- 
ing of  a  college  edifice.  The  virtues  like  his  are  not  easily  acquired :  such 
qualities  honor  the  nature  of  a  man.  I  bought  a  vest-pattern  and  trimmings, 
lor  five  dollars.  This  caused  an  universal  consternation  throughout  tlie  colo- 
nies.— Burke.  We  stopped  at  a  hotel  on  Broadway,  Apostrophe  [ '  ]  is  used 
in  the  place  of  a  letter  lett  out.  The  day  and  night  succeed  eacli  other.  All 
the  chief  priests  and  elders  took  counsel  against  Jesus,  to  put  him  to  death. 
You  may  measure  the  time  by  a  watch,  clock,  or  dial.  Beware,  of  drunken- 
ness: it  impairs  understanding,  wastes  an  estate,  destroys  a  reputation,  consumes 
the  body,  and  renders  the  man  of  the  brightest  parts  the  common  jest  of  tl)o 
meanest  clown.  True  charity  is  not  the  meteor  which  occasionally  glares,  but 
the  luminary  which,  in  its  orderly  and  regular  course,  dispenses  benignant  in- 
fluence. Purity  has  its  seat  in  the  heart,  but  extends  its  influence  over  so 
much  of  the  outward  conduct,  as  to  form  the  great  and  material  part  of  a 
character. 


ARTICLES. OBSERVATIONS. 


147 


OBSERVATIONS. 

From  the  Saxon  ane  are  derived  our  an,  a,  and  one.  Hence  an  is  the  older 
form,  which  hus  become  a  for  the  sake  of  euphony.  Even  in  Enijhsh  written  ita 
the  last  century,  we  not  uufrequently  find  an  used  where  a  would  now  be  prefer- 
red. An  or  a  is  now  sometimes  equivalent  to  one;  but  generally  it  differs  from  it 
by  a  shade  of  meaning.  "  It  weighs  a  pound,  or  one  pound  ;"  but  when  I  say, 
"  The  whole  community  rose  like  one  man,  and  built  a  bridge  over  the  river,"  one 
and  a  are  not  interchangeable.  "Will  you  take  a  horse?'' — or  something  else? 
"  Will  you  take  one  horse  ?" — or  two?  The  is  akin  to  that,  but  less  emphatic  ;  and 
formerly  it  was  sometimes  used  even  before  relative  pronouns,  "  Northumber- 
land, tli'ou  ladder,  by  the  which  my  cousin  Bolingbroke  ascends  my  throne." — 
Shal~esi)eare. 

As  a  general  thing,  substantives  must  have  or  assume  meaning,  or  must  have 
meaning  liable  to  be  widened  or  contracted,  before  the  articles  can  be  applied  to 
taem  ;  and  substantives  must  be  without  meaning,  or  have  meaning  not  liable  to 
be  widened  or  contracted,  or  must  be  fixed  in  application,  before  they  can  dispense 
with  the  articles.  Substantives  denoting  material  or  abstract  substances  sui  gene- 
ris, or  having  themselves  the  accessory  idea  of  distinction  from  other  things,  do 
not  require  the  article.  The  article  generally  has  a  double  reference  :  the  one,  to 
other  objects  of  the  same  kind ;  and  the  other,  to  other  kinds.  _  "  Give  me  an 
apple,"  refers  not  only  to  other  apples,  but  also,  by  way  of  exclusion,  to  oranges, 
peaches,  plums,  cakes,  or  other  objects. 

I'he  often  suggests  that  there  is  but  one  object  or  group  of  the  kind,  supposed, 
by  the  speaker,  to  be  generally  known ;  a  or  an  always  implies  that  there  are  or 
may  be  other  similar  objects.  The  imphes  that  the  speaker  and  the  hearer  have 
in  common  a  knowledge  of  the  individual  as  well  as  of  the  class, — such  a  knowl- 
edge as  enables  the  speaker  to  suggest  at  once  to  the  hearer,  by  means  of  the  ar- 
ticle, the  object  meant;  but  a  or  an.  does  not  necessarily  require  that  they  have 
in  common  more  than  a  knowledge  of  tlie  class. 

The  article  may  be  definite,  indefinite,  or  omitted,  according  to  many  different 
views : — 

1.  Definite,  as  referrina:  to  the  general  knowledge  of  mankind.  "  The  sun,  the 
earth,  the  Messiah,  the  dyspepsy,  the  sword,  the  Sabbath." 

2.  Definite,  as  referring  to  the  general  knowledge  of  a  community, — to  things 
often  noticed,  or  often  thought  of.  "J'Ae  Missouri  Compromise."  "I'Ae  Legis- 
lature." '■'■The  never-failing  brook,  the  busy  mill,  the  decent  church  that  topped  the 
neighboring  hill." 

3.  Definite,  as  referring  to  the  knowledge  of  the  family  circle.  "  Go  to  the  well 
— ^to  the  barn."     "  Where  is  the  washbowH''     '■'•The  old  oaken  backet." 

4.  Definite,  as  referring  to  the  knowledge  of  the  person  addressed.  "  Give  me 
the  letter." 

5.  Definite,  as  referring  to  what  has  been  mentioned,  spoken  of,  or  already 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  person  addressed.  *'  Go  along  till  you  come  to  a 
bridge  ;  and  just  beyond  the  bridge,  turn  to  the  right."  These  last  two  principles 
are  often  violated  ;  speakers  or  writers  presumingtoo  much  on  the  knowledge  of 
their  hearers  or  readers,  or  speaking  of  objects  unknown  as  if  other  people  were 
as  well  acquainted  with  them  as  they  themselves  are.  "  I  will  now  give  you  an 
account  of  the  great  hurricane  which  passed  over  our  village,  when  I  waa  a  boy." 
Say,  "(i  great." 

6.  Definite,  as  referring  to  the  class  to  which  t!ie  object  belongs,  ^^The  [boat] 
Fulton  went  up  the  Hudson"  [river].  "  Alexander  the  Great."  "Bolivar  was  ih« 
Washinofton  of  Soutli  America." 

7.  Definite,  by  way  of  preeminence.  (See  the  preceding  paragraph.)  "27^e  man 
of  men,"     "  The  Bible  is  the  book  of  books."     '■^The  generous  Latayette," 

8.  Definite,  as  comprehending  the  whole  class,  or  as  referring  to  other  classes 
of  objects.  "  The  horse  is  a  useful  animal."  '■'The  letters  are  divided,"  &c,  '■'■The 
beautiful."     "  The  Stuarts,"     "  One  or  the  other  of  two," 

9.  i)e/-?/2.ire,  as  referring  to  the  other  parts  associated  with  the  object.  "  27t« 
neck  connects  the  head  and  tlve  trunk," 

10.  Definite,  as  being  a  necessary  part  or  accompaniment,  and  as  being  there- 
fore known  to  some  extent  to  the  hearer,  '■'■The  weather  was  fine."  "  The  fare 
was  good  :  the  coffee  and  rolls  were  particularly  excellent."  "  Andre  stood  beside 
the  coffin."     "  The  enemy  were  on  the  other  sicle." 

7* 


148  ARTICLES. — OBSERVATIONS. 

11.  Definite,  as  being  alone,  or  all,  and  known  to  be  so.  '•'■The  eartb  is  sotn?- 
what  flat  at  the  poles."     '■'•T'he  first  and  the  last." 

12.  Definite^  as  bein^  m:ide  so  by  some  accompanying  descriptive  words.  "  The 
BLUE-EYiiD  damsel."     "T^Ae  winds  of  AUTaM>r."     '•'■The  mail  who  is  upright." 

1.  Indefinite,  as  first  introducing  an  object  of  a  known  class,  or  as  implying  that 
there  are  or  may  be  other  objects  of  the  same  kind.  '•^An  old  manuscript,  ibund 
in  Rome,  has,"  &c.  "  He  is  a  saddler."  "^  Homer."  In  this  sense,  the  noun 
may  be  even  to  some  extent  made  definite  by  other  words. 

2.  Indefinite,  as  being  used  in  the  sense  oi any,  each,  or  every.  '■'■A  conjunction 
connects  words."     *'^4  dollar  a  pair." 

3.  Indefinite,  to  exclude  the  ambiguous  sense  which  the  would  give.  "  She  re- 
ceived a  third  of  the  estate."  '■'•The  third"  might  suggest  a  particular  third.  "  A 
librarian  is  a  person  who  has  charge  of  a  library."  '•'•The  person"  might  suggest 
that  '■'•person'''  is  the  subject-nominative. 

1.  .Omitted,  because  the  mind  does  not  individualize  the  object,  or  conceive  it 
with  definite  limits.  "  Orthography  treats  of  the  forms  of  letters  and  words.'''' 
*'  The  oak  is  a  species  octree.'''' 

2.  Om'itted,  because,  by  frequent  notice  of  the  object,  the  word  has  acquired  al- 
most the  definiteness  of  a  proper  name,  or  because  it  is  merely  descriptive. 
"  Where  is /ci^/^er  .^"  "  At  ^aWe."  "  With  5oa{y  and  sow?."  "On/oo^."  "Go 
to  ied.''''     "  Boston  Common.'''' 

3.  Omitted,  because  if  used  it  might  imply  too  much  importance  or  emphasis. 
"  Notice."  '•'■A  Notice"  might  suggest,  Now  look  here  ;  for  this  is  a  notice  that  is 
a  notice. 

4.  Omitted,  because  it  might  give  a  wrong  impression.  "  He  was  then  sheriff.''^ 
"  Use  essence  of  peppermint."     "  She  is  heir  to  a  little  fortune." 

5.  Omitted,  for  the  sake  of  poetic  measure.  "  The  why  is  plain  as  way  to 
parish  church." — Shalcespeare. 

Always  consider  carefully,  in  the  use  of  words,  what  the  sense  requires.  "  A 
pine  is  a  species  of  a  tree,"  is  improper;  because  one  tree  is  not  a  class,  nor  is  a 
whole  class  a  part  of  one  tree.  2'he  pine  is  a  species  of  tree.  "  Bear  Worcester  to 
the  death." — Shak.  Improper,  because  no  particular  kind  of  death  was  meant. 
— to  death — to  his  death.  "  A  half  eagle,"  and  "  half  an  eagle,"  are  not  necessarily 
equivalent.  What  is  true  of  all,  is  usually  true  of  each:  hence  we  can  say,  "^ 
wise  man  may  be  more  useful  than  a  rich  man  ;"  "^4  good  pupil  never  disobeys  his 
instructor-" — or,  "2%ewise  man  maybe  more  useful  than  Z^Ae  rich  man;"  "  2^/te 
good  pupil  never  disobeys  his  instructor."  There  are  some  things  that  may  be  con 
ceived  either  in  the  gross  or  as  individuals  ;  and  hence  the  article  may  be  either 
omitted  or  used.  "  It  fell  with  loud  noise  ;"  "  It  fell  with  a  loud  noise.''''  "  I  see  a 
farm."  first  observance ;  iust  enough  knowledge  of  it  to  tell  what  it  is.  *'  I  see  the 
farm."  Previous  knowledge.  ''CiBsar,  a  Ctesar;"  "From  liberty  each  nobler 
science  sprung,  a  Bacon  brightened,  and  a  Spenser  sung."  Meaning  assumed, 
application  extended.  "  Dar'st  thou,  then,  to  beard  the  lion  in  his  den, — the  Dou- 
glas in  his  hall  ?" — Scott.  "  Tiiese  are  the  sacred  feelings  of  thy  heart,  O  Lyttle- 
ton,  the  friend." — 2  homion.  "  I  am  surprised  that  lie  should  have  treated  coldly  a 
man  so  much  the  gentleman."  Preeminence,  j'he  is  sometimes  an  elegant  substi- 
tute for  the  possessive  pronoun.  "  He  took  me  by  the  hand" — my  hand.  "  You 
may  always  know  the  tree  by  the  fruit" — 'ots  fruit.  "  They  had  never  bowed  the 
knee  to  a  tyrant." 

"  There  are  few  mistakes  in  his  composition" — almost  none.  "  There  are  a  few 
mistakes  in  his  composition" — some — many.  "  There  are  not  a  few  mistakes  in  his 
composition" — very  many.  So,  "  She  has  i'dtle  vanitv ;"  "  She  has  a  Little  vanity;" 
"She  has  not  a  little  vanity."  A  noun  limited  by  the  indefinite  article,  may 
often  be  made  plural  in  the  same  sense,  by  omitting  the  article :  as,  "  He  was 
a  representative  from  St.  Louis  ;"  "  They  were  rnpresentatiues  from  St.  Louis." 
Elegance  requires, — "He  paid  neither  the  principal  nor  the  interest — both  the 
principal  and  tlie  interest — the  principal  as  well  as  the  interest — the  principal,  but 
not  the  interest — principal  and  interests.  We  usually  say,  "Too  good  a  man," 
"  Too  large  an  apple,"  &c. ;  accordingly,  it  is  better  to  say,  "  Too  nice  a  woman," 
^' Too  frequent  a  repetition,"  than,  "  A  too  nice  woman,"  "A  too  frequent  re  p- 
/Btitioij."  "  He  is  a  better  poet  than  painter."  He  is  not  so  good  a  painter.  "  He 
js  a  better  painter  than  a  Poet."  In  painting,  he  excels  poets.  "  The  black  and 
white  on\r^-^^ne  calf.  "The  black  and  the  white  calf" — two.  "  He  wrote  for  a 
light  Q,ijd  a  strong  wagon" — two.     "  He  wrote  for  a  light  and  strong  wagon" — one. 


ADJECTIVES.  149 

"  He  married  a  handsome,  a  seusible,  and  an  accomplished  woman" — married 
three.  Say,  "  a  handsome,  sensible,  and  accoinpUshed  woman."  "  A  farmer, 
lawyer,  and  politician,  addressed  the  assembly" — one  person.  "  I  saw  the  editor, 
the  printer,  and  the  proprietor  of  the  paper" — three  2)ersons.  But,  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis,  and  when  the  meaning  can  not  be  misconceived,  the  article  is  some- 
times repeated ;  as,  "  There  sat  the  wise,  the  eloquent,  and  the  patriotic  Chatham." 
"  Give  me  the  fourtli  and  the  last,"  may  not  be  equivalent  to  "  Give  me  the  fourth 
and  last."  We  can  not  say,  "  The  definite  and  the  indefinite  articles,"  nor, 
"The  definite  and  indefinite  article;"  but  we  must  say,  "  The  definite  and  the  in- 
definite article,"  "The  definite  and  indefiaiite  articles,"  or,  "  The  definite  article  and 
t;ie  indefinite."  The  last  is  generally  tlie  best  mode  of  expression.  The  omission 
of  the  article  sometimes  implies  a  unity  in  the  objects,  or  in  the  view  taken ;  the 
repetition  of  it,  separation.  "  The  soul  and  body."  Viewed  as  one.  "The  soul 
and  the  body."  Vievved  separately  and  distinctly.  "The  day,  the  hour,  and  the 
minute,  were  specified."  Emphasis.  "  I  have  just  sold  a  house  and  lot — a  horse 
and  buggy."  One  belonged  to  the  other.  "  I  have  just  sold  a  house  and  a  lot — 
a  horse  and  a  buggy."  One  did  not  belong  to  the  other.  "  He  is  a  poet  and  a 
mathematician."  Qualifications  seldom  found  in  the  same  person.  "  He  is  a 
physician  and  surgeon — a  lawyer  and  politician."  Qualifications  usually  found  in 
the  same  person,  "  A  singular  and  plural  antecedent  require  a  plural  verb." — 
Wells.  Eeqalre.,  in  the  plural  number,  shows  the  sense  ;  but  the  article  should 
rather  have  been  repeated.  "There  are  three  persons*  the  first,  second,  and 
third."  Mr.  Brown  contends  that  this  should  be,  "  There  are  three  persons ; 
the  first,  the  second,  and  the  third."  I  think  he  is  hypercritical  in  regard  to  such 
e.xpressions.  Query. — Should  the  indefinite  article  be  repeated  before  each  one  of 
a  series  of  substantives,  merely  because  a  different  form  of  the  article  is  required  ? 
Mr.  Murray  thinks  it  should  ;  the  other  grammarians  treat  the  difficulty  with  char- 
acteristic evasion.  I  should  not  hesitate  to  omit  the  article  to  avoid  a  clumsier 
expression.  I  should  rather  say,  "  A  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  a  noun, 
adjective,  verb,  or  adverb,  to  an  objective,"  than,  "  A  preposition  shows  the  rela- 
tion of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  a  verb,  or  an  adverb,  to  an  objective."  Some  of  the 
best  authors  favor  the  former  mode  of  expression.  Such  expressions  as  "  A  histo- 
riiii'i,''  "A  harmonic  scale,"  have  occasionally  been  countenanced  by  the  best  writers 
and  critics  ;  and  it  would  seem  that  euphony  sometimes  allows  the  a,  when  the 
first  syllable  is  closed  by  a  consonant  sound,  or  when  the  h  is  heard  with  con- 
siderable distinctness. 

7.   ADJECTIVES. 

?  203.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  substantive. 

Ex. — "A  mellow  apple ;  a  leautifal  woman ;  a  brilliant  star  ;  five  carriages ;  yon- 
der mountains ;  brass  buttons ;  hoary-headed  men ;  a  large,  red,  and  juicy  apple ; 
eyes  bright,  blue,  and  affectianate.''''  "  He  is  industrious  and  fru^gaV  "  To  slight 
the  poor  is  mean.'''' 

Our  language  has  about  7,000  adjectives;  and  they  give  to  it  not  a  little  of 
its  beauty,  energy,  and  precision. 

?  204.  Words  from  other  parts  of  speech  are  frequently  used  as 
adjectives. 

Ex. — "A  gold  ring;  a  mahogany  table;  state  revenue;  Gali^ornia  gold;  she 
politicians ;  a  would-be  scholar ;  parsing  exercises ;  rolling  prairies  ;  the  far-ojf 
future;  the  above  remarks;  &  farewell  address."  "The  lightnings  flashed  'ver- 
milion.''''— Dante.  ("  The  rose  looks  red.'''')  "  The  West  is  as  truly  American,  as 
genuinely  Jonathan,  as  any  other  part  of  our  country." —  Wise. 

?  205.  Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  chief  classes  ;  descrip- 
tive and  definitive. 

?  206.  A  <le!«criptive  adjective  describes  or  qualifies. 

Ex. — Good,  white,  square.     "The  green  forest  was  bathed  in  golden  light," 


%50  ADJECTIVES. 

?  207.  A  defuiiilive  adjective  merely  limits  or  modifies. 

Ex. — "  There  are  mdny  wealthy  farmers  in  tlm  country." 

?  Adjectives  may  be  divided  also  into  several  smaller  classes :  namely, 
common;  participial;  compound;  numeral,  comprising  cardinal,  ordinal, 
and  multiplicative;  and  pronominal,  comprising  distributive,  demonstrative, 
and  indefinite. 

'  208.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet  of  the  language ; 
as,   Good,  upper. 

?  209.  A  proper  adjective  is  an  adjective  derived  from  a  proper 
noun;  as,  American.,  English,  Newtonian. 

?  210.  A  participial  adjective  is  a  participle  ascribing  the  act  or 
state  to  its  subject  as  a  quality;  as,  '^ TwinJcling  stars." 

In  the  phrase  "  his  dyin^  day,"  df/in^  is^  a  mere  adjective  ;  and  it  is  plain,  for 
instance,  that  unepita^hed — "without  epitaph,"  and  unhorsed — "deprived  of 
horse,''  differ  radically  in  sense.  A  participial  adjective  is  derived  directly  from 
a  verb,  is  nearly  always  placed  before  its  noun,  and  generally  expresses  a  per- 
manent or  habitual  act  or  state. 

?  211.  A  compound  adjective  is  a  compound  word  used  as  an  adjective ; 
as,  " ThicJc-warbled  songs." 

?  212.  A  numeral  adjective  expresses  number  definitely ;  as.  Two, 
second,  twofold. 

?  Tho  cardinal  numerals  tell  how  many,  as  one,  two ;  the  ordinal,  which 
one,  as  first,  second;  and  the  multiplicative,  how  many  fold,  as  single,  double, 
twofold.     A  long  or  composite  numeral  is  parsed  as  one  word. 

?  213.  The  pronominal  adjectives  are  a  class  of  definitive  adjectives 
of  which  some  are  occasionally  used  as  pronouns ;  as,   T/iat,  this,  other. 

?  The  distributive  point  out  objects  as  taken  separately;  as,  Each,  every, 
cither,  neither,  many  a. 

?  The  demonstrative,  or  definite,  point  out  objects  definitely  ;  as,   Tliis,  yonder. 

i  Tho  indefinite  point  out  objects  indefinitely  ;  as,  Any,  some. 


Degrees  off  CompariMOiii. 

?  Since  the  same  quality  may  exist  in  different  objects  and  in 
different  degrees,  adjectives  are  modified  to  express  higher  or  lower 
degrees,  or  the  highest  or  the  lowest  degrees,  of  the  quality.  Hence 
adjectives  have  what  are  called  the  degrees  of  comparison. 

Ex. — "  Lime  is  white  ;  milk  is  whiter;  but  snow  is  the  whitest  of  all." 

?  Adjectives  liave  three  degrees  of  comparison;  the  positive.,  the 
comparative^  and  the  superlative. 

?  214.  a.  The  positive  degree  ascribes  the  quality  simply. 

Ex. — "  A  young  orchard ;  a  large  fann."    "  The  fields  look  green  and/re*A." 

?  215.  h.  It  ascribes  an  equal  degree  of  the  quality,  without  refer- 
ence to  lower  or  higher  degrees  of  the  same  quality. 

Ex. — "  She  is  as  good  as  he."    "  A  woman  as  modest  as  she  is  heautifuV 

'?  216.  a.  The  comparative  degree  ascribes  the  quality  in  a 


ADJECTIVES.  151 

higher  or  a  lower  degree  to  one  object,  or  set  of  objects,  than  to 
another. 

Ex. — "  A  younger  'brotlier ;  more  important  affairs  ;  a  boy  less  studlousy 

?  217.  6.  It  ascribes  the  qnality  in  a  higher  or  a  lower  degree,  as 
reckoned  from  some  other  condition  or  quality  of  the  same  object  or 
of  a  different  object. 

Ex. — "  A  nation  is  happier  in  peace  than  in  war."  "  I  am  better  than  I  was." 
"  She  is  more  accomplished  than  wise."     "  My  horse  is  wJiiter  than  yours  is  black." 

?  The  comparative  degree  always  implies  two  considered  distinct  from  each 
other ;  and  it  either  refers  to  the  same  quality  in  two  different  objects  or  in  two 
different  conditions  of  the  same  object,  or  it  refers  to  one  quality  as  contrasted 
with  a  different  one.  That  from  which  it  is  reckoned,  is  sometimes  understood, 
or  exists  only  in  the  mind. 

Ex. — "  A  more  e^ip'i/>Z6  situation"  [than  some  other  one].  "What  is  letter  is 
always  preferred." 

The  comparative  de^^rae  may  be  construed  with  than  after  it ;  therefore  such 
words  as  super jor,  inferior,  interior,  preferable,  previous,  &c.,  are  not  in  the  com- 
l)arative  degree.  And  I  doubt  very  much  whether  such  words  as  inner,  outer, 
upper,  hinder,  can  be  properly  said  to  be  in  the  comparative  degree.  They  do 
not  admit  than  after  them,  and  they  refer  to  an  opposite  rather  than  to  a  positive 
state;  thus,  upper  refers  to  loiver,  ratlier  than  to  up;  inner,  to  outer.  Inner  and 
outer  differ  very  little  from  internal  and  external. 

?  218.  a.  The  swperlative  degree  ascribes  the  quality  in  the 
highest  or  the  lowest  degree  in  which  such  objects  have  it. 

Ex. — "  The  loveliest  flowers  were  there."  "  The  m^st  skillful  rider  could  do  no 
better."  "The  least  skillful  rider  could  do  no  worse."  "  Two  kindest  souls  alone 
must  meet;  'tis  friendship  makes  the  bondage  sweet." — Watts. 

1  219.  b.  It  ascribes  the  quality  in  the  highest  or  the  lowest  de- 
gree to  one  object,  or  group  of  objects,  as  compared  with  the  rest,  or 
with  other  conditions  of  the  same  object. 

Ex. — "The  largest  sjoamore  on  the  river."  "  The  best  peaches  are  taken  from 
the  tree."     "  He  sat  highest  on  Parnassus."     "  I  am  happiest  at  home." 

?  The  superlative  degree  implies  three  or  more  objects  classed  together ;  or 
else  it  implies  other  similar  conditions  of  the  same  object. 

?  220.  An  adjective  can  not  be  compared  with  propriety,  wlien 
it  denotes  a  quality  or  property  that  can  not  exist  in  different  de- 
grees. 


Ex. — ^Equal,  level,  perpendicular,  square,  naked,  round,  straight,  first,  second, 
one,  two,  blind,  deaf,  dead,  empty,  perfect,  right,  honest,  sincere,  hollow,  four- 
footed. 

?  221.  Good  writers,  however,  sometimes  use  such  adjectives  in 
the  comparative  or  the  superlative  degree ;  but  then  they  do  not 
take  them  in  their  full  sense. 

Ex. — "  Our  sight  is  the  ntost  perfect  of  our  senses." — Addison.  This  means  that 
it  approaches  nearer,  than  the  rest,  to  perfection.  "  And  love  is  still  an  emptier 
name." — OoHsmith.  Almost  all  descriptive  or  qualifying  adjectives  may  be  used 
either  as  absolute,  in  their  meaning,  or  as  relative.  And  hence  the  comparative  and 
superlative  de^jrees  may  sometimes  express  even  less  of  the  quality  than  the  posi- 
tive degree  expresses.  "  John's  apple  may  be  better  than  mine,  and  William  may 
have  the  best  apple,  yet  not  one  of  them  may  be  really  good.''"'  "  Your  largest  horsa 
is  a  mere  pony." 


162  ADJECTIVES. 

?  222.  A  little  of  the  quality  may  be  expressed  by  adding  isk 
to  the  positive,  or  by  placing  before  it  such  words  as  rather,  some- 
what j  &c. 

Ex. — Black,  blackish;  saltish;  yellowish;  somewhat  disagreeable;  rather  young. 

?  223.  A  high  degree  of  the  quality,  without  implying  direct 
comparison,  is  expressed  by  very,  exceedingly,  a  most,  &c. 

Ex. — "  Very  respectful ;  exceedingly  polite ;  a  most  distinguished  soldier." 


Hour  a<l|ective§  are  rompared. 

?  224.  To  express  inferiority,  we  use  less  and  least. 

Ex. — Pos.  good,  comp.  less  good,  superl.  least  good  ;  important,  less  important, 
least  iinportant. 

?  225.  To  express  superiority,  the  comparison  is  formed  by  adding 
er  and  est  to  the  positive,  or  by  placing  more  and  most  before  it. 

Ex. — Pos.  large,  comp.  larger^  superl,  largest;  rich,  richer,  richest ;  cheerful, 
more  cheerful,  most  cheerful.      See  Eules  for  Spelling. 

J  Which  of  these  methods  should  be  used,  depends  chiefly  on  the  sound  of 
the  word,  or  on  the  number  of  its  syllables. 

?  226.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  compared  by  adding  er  for 

the  comparative,  and  est  for  the  superlative. 

Ex. — Deep,  deeper,  deepest ;  wise,  wiser ^  wised;  sad,  sadder,  saddest ;  dry,  drier, 
driest. 

?  227.  Adjectives  of  three  or  more  syllables  must  always  be  com- 
pared by  more  and  most. 

Ex. — Beautiful,  more  heautifal,  most  heautifal. 

?  Adjectives  of  two  syllables  follow  some  of  them  one  method,  and  some  the 
other. 

?  228.  Adjectives  of  two  syllables  ending  in  y,  or  in  le  after  a 
consonant,  or  accented  on  the  second  syllable,  are  generally  com- 
pared by  er  and  est. 

Ex. — Happy,  happier,  happiest ;  feeble,  feehler,  feeblest ;  polite,  politer,  politest. 

?  229.  Some  other  adjectives  of  two  syllables  are  sometimes  com- 
pared in  like  manner;  especially  if  they  end  in  a  vowel  or  a  liquid 
sound. 

Ex. — ^^ 'Narrow,  narrower,  narrowest ;  handsome,  handsomer,  handsomest ;  ten- 
der, tenderer,  tenderest.^''  "  The  metaphor  is  the  commonest  figure." — Blair's  Rhe- 
toric.    "  Philosophers  are  but  a  soberer  sort  of  madmen." — Irving. 

?  230.  Some  words  are  expressed  in  the  superlative  degree,  by 
annexing  most  to  them. 

Ex. — Foremost,  utmost,  inmost,  innermost,  hindmost,  nethermost. 

?  231.  To  express  superiority,  any  adjective  may  sometimes  be 

compared  by  more  and  most. 

Ex. —  "  A  foot  more  light,  a  step  more  true, 

Ne'er  from  the  heath-flower  dashed  the  dew." — Scott. 


ADJECTIVES.  153 

?  232.  When  two  or  more  adjectives  come  together,  of  which  some 
are  properly  compared  by  er  and  est,  and  others  by  more  and  most,  the 
smaller  are  generally  placed  first,  and  all  are  compared  as  one,  by  more 
and  most. 

Ex. — "  The  more  nice  and  elegant  parts y — Johnson.  "  Homer's  imaginatioa  was 
by  far  the  most  rich  and  copiousP — Pope. 

Mure,  most,  less,  and  least,  when  used  to  compare  other  words,  should  be 
parsed  separately,  and  as  adverbs. 

?  The  adjectives  whose  comparison  can  not  be  learned  by  means  of  a 
general  rule,  are  said  to  be  irregular. 

Ex. — *'  Good,  better,  lest;  bad,  worse,  worst.''''      See  p.  11. 


1%  limber. 

?  Some  adjectives  express  number. 

Ex. — This,  these  ;  that,  those ;  few ;  many. 

?  One,  first,  second,  etc. ;  each,  every,  either,  neither ;  this,  that,  another  ; 
much,  all  (the  whole),  whole  (all  the), — denote  but  one  object  or  one  ag- 
gregate. 

Ex. — "  Thii  first  MAN."  *'  HhQ  first  ten  men."  '•'■Every  creature  loves  its  like.' ' 
^'■Neither  combatant  recovered  from  his  wounds." 

1  The  numerals  above  one,  (as  two,  three,  etc.,)  and  these,  those,  all 
(number), /ew,  several,  many,  divers,  sundry,  refer  to  more  objects  than  one. 

?  233.  Adjectives  implying  number,  must  agree  in  this  respect 
with  the  substantives  to  which  they  relate. 

Ex.—"  Four  feet ;"  not,  "  Four  /oo«."  •'  That  kind  of  trees,"  or,  '*  Trees  of 
that  KIND  ;"  not,  "  Those  kind  of  tree's." 


Pronominal  asid  otlier  definitive  adjeetlves. 

All  takes  in  the  whole  number  spoken  ofj  or  the  entire  object  or  clnss.  "J.?Z 
men."  ^'AU  the  years  of  man's  life."  "  If  all  the  year  were  playing  holidays." 
*'  He  is  the  best  of  them  olV 

Any  strongly  denotes  an  indefinite  object.  It  denotes  it  as  opposed  to  a 
particular  one  or  to  none.  "There  is  little  honor  in  what  any  body  can  do." 
"  Have  you  amj  foreigners  in  your  county?" 

Both  means  the  two.  It  is  usually  emphatic,  implying  not  only  the  one,  but 
the  other  also.     ''Both  horses  are  lame."    "  Wis  father  and  mother  are  both  dead." 

Certain  indefinitely  describes  what  the  speaker  more  definitely  knows.  "A 
certain  man  planted  a  vineyard."     "  I  will  not  vote  for  a  certain  candidate." 

Divers=several  or  many  +  different.  '*  Divers  philosophers  hold  that  the 
lips  are  part  and  parcel  of  the  mind." — Shak.  Ever  so  many  different  philoso- 
phers, etc. 

Each  means  both  or  all  considered  separately.  It  implies  two  or  more. 
''Each  one  of  the  twins  has  a  horse."     ''■Each  pupil  must  use  his  own  books." 

Either  means  one  or  the  other  of  two,  but  not  both.  Sometimes  it  de- 
notes the  two  in  the  sense  of  each,  but  with  greater  distinctness.  "  I  will  sell 
either  one  of  my  two  horses."  ''■Either  road  leads  to  town."  "  On  either  side 
they  found  impassable  barriers." — Irving.  That  is,  if  they  turned  to  one  side, 
they  found  them  there ;  and  if  they  turned  to  the  other  side,  tlfcy  also  found 
them  there. 

E'lther  is  sometimes  applied  to  more  than  two,  but  with  very  questionable  pro- 
priety.    '■'■  Either  or  ne'dner,  applied  to  any  number  greater  than  one  of  two  objects 


154  ADJECTIVES. 

IS  a  mere  solecism,*  and  one  of  late  mtrodnotlon.''  ~Eirrison''8  English  Tjaiiguagp. 
"  The  pronominal  adjectives  either  and  neither^  in  Ptnct  propriety  ot"  syntax,  rchito 
to  two  only ;  when  more  are  referred  to,  any  and  none^  or  anjf  one  and  n^  one, 
iiiould  be  used  in  stead  of  them." — Ooold  Brown.  The  following  sentence  from 
Geo.  P.  Marsh,  however,  could  hardly  be  improved :  "  DryJen,  Pope,  and  Words- 
worth have  not  scrupled  to  lay  a  profane  hand  upon  Gha"ucer,  a  mightier  genius 
ihan  eithery 

Else  excludes  what  is  ascertained,  from  something  indefinite.  "  What  else  ?" 
"Any  one  eZse."     "Who  else  have  seen  him?" 

Every  means  all  considered  separately.  It  implies  several  or  many.  ^^Every 
apple  in  the  basket  is  frozen."     "  Pick  up  every  one." 

Few  denotes  a  comparatively  small  number.  ^'•Few  shall  part  wiiere  many 
meet." 

Former.     See  This  and  Tliat. 

Latter.     See  This  and  That 

Many  denotes  a  comparatively  large  number. 

Many  a  means  many  considered  separately.  It  differs  from  every,  only  in 
not  denoting  all.  Many  a  is  to  mamj,  as  every  is  to  all.  "  Many  a  man  has 
been  ruined  by  intemperance." 

Much  denotes  a  comparatively  large  quantity.    ^'Much  money." 

Neither  means  not  the  one  nor  the  other.  It  is  opposed  to  each  denoting 
two,  or  to  either  in  this  sense ;  sometimes  to  both.  ^'Each  of  yours  is  good,  but 
neither  of  mine  is."     "  Shall  I  take  both,  one,  or  neither  ?" 

No  means  not  any,  or  not  a,  or  it  denies  of  all  separately.  Sometimes  it  de- 
nies a  certain  character  of  an  object.  "iVb  man  knows  his  destiny."  "  She  is 
no  friend  of  mine."     "  Even  Sunday  shines  no  Sabbath-day  to  me." — Pope. 

One  may  be  applied  indefinitely  to  any  person  or  other  object. 

One  corresponds  to  another,  when  the  meaning  is  not  that  there  are  but  two ; 
one  or  the  one,  to  the  other  of  two.  One=eiiher  of  two ;  the  one=a  particular 
one  of  two.  "First  came  one  daiighter,  and  then  another.''^  "Tiiey  marched  one 
after  another.''^  "He  went  from  one  extreme  to  the  other.''^  One  sometimes  de- 
notes a  person  as  not  well  known,  or  as  of  not  much  importance.  Hence  it  is 
sometimes  very  contemptuous.  "Ow,e  Peter  Simmons  was  tlie  defendant."  "Au 
attack  upon  me  by  one  Reid." — Benton. 

Other  or  another  denotes  something  different  or  distinct  from  something 
else,  yet  of  the  same  class  or  name.  With  allusion  to  something  known  or 
mentioned,  it  denotes  something  else.  "  An  other  overflow."  "  Take  the  oUiery 
"  They  are  meant  for  us  ;  they  can  be  meant  for  no  other.'''' — P.  Henry. 

Own  implies  possession  with  emphasis  or  distinction.  "  My  own.''''  "  Use 
your  own  book."     "  Our  own  Webster." 

Same  means  not  another  or  not  different.  It  denotes  tlie  identical  object  or 
a  similar  object.  "It  is  the  same  boat  that  we  saw  an  hour  ago."  "This 
church  is  built  of  the  same  stones  as  the  other." 

Several  denotes  more  than  two  and  fewer  than  many.     "Several  boys." 

Some  denotes  one  or  a  portion  indefinitely.  It  is  opposed  to  all,  a  particu- 
lar one,  or  the  tvhole.  "-Some  of  the  robbers  were  caught."  "Some  one  said  so." 
^'■Some  of  his  money  was  stolen."  When  two  indefinite  portions  are  spoken  of 
or  are  contrasted,  some  is  often  applied  to  one,  and  o^Aer^  to  the  other;  when 
more  than  two  are  spoken  of,  some  is  generally  used  throughout.  Sometimes 
others  is  used  to  continue  the  sentence  after  the  first  some.  "  Some  of  tlie  men 
were  without  coats,  and  otfiers  without  shoes."  "Some  of  the  papils  are  indo- 
lent, some  are  mischievous,  and  some  are  stupid." 

*  Errors  of  pfraitimar  are  oomtnonly  called  solerisvia,  from  Soli,  tlie  nmiie  of  a  Grecian  col- 
ony,  noted  for  the  misuse  of  their  mother-toiii^uii.  "The  harbarium  is  an  oflfence  against 
etymology,  the  aoledsm  against  syntax,  and  tlie  impropriety  agauist  lexicogi-aphy." — 
CatnpbelVa  Rhetoric. 


ADJECTIVES.  155 

Such  refers  to  an  object  as  being  of  the  same  nature,  character,  or  descrip- 
tion, as  some  thing  else.  "  Alodesty,  meekness,  and  such  virtues."  "Such  men 
as  he  is."  "Such  principles  as  we  approve."  It  is  sometimes  so  used  as  to  in- 
clude both  the  objects  or  classes  to  which  the  comparison  relates.  "It  is  so 
used  by  such  waiters  as  Swift  and  Addison;"  i.  e.,  by  Swift  and  Addison,  and 
other  writers  hke  them.  Sometimes  it  denotes  identity  in  stead  of  similarity, 
and  is  then  generally  in  the  way  of  a  better  expression.  "Such  nouns  as  end  in 
X  assume  es;"  say,   "77ie  nouns  which,^''  &c. 

Suiidry=cZwer5,  but  it  is  not  quite  so  emphatic.  "  So  teach  sundry  gram- 
marians."— Brawn. 

This  (plu.  these)  strongly  and  distinctly  points  out  something  as  near  the 
speaker,  in  place  or  time.  "  This  house  and  these  fields,  are  they  not  yours  ?" 
"27^^5  subject  has  been  frequently  discussed." 

That  (pin.  those)  strongly  and  distinctly  points  out  something  as  not  near  the 
speaker,  or  as  not  so  near  as  something  else.  Hence,  in  speaking  of  two,  that 
may  be  applied  to  the  former,  and  thi^  to  the  latter.  ^'That  cloud  is  exceedingly 
beautiful."  "  These  roses  will  bloom  longer  than  thosej'  "  TJiai  question  which 
we  were  yesterday  discussing." 

"Some  put  the  bliss  in  action,  some  in  ease  : 
Those  call  it  pleasure  ;  and  contentment,  these.^^ — Pope. 

In.  such  cases,  former  and  latter,  one  and  other,  ones  and  others,  may  also  fre- 
quently be  used.  Former  and  latter  are  the  most  obvious  in  their  reference. 
'♦  The  cry  of  danger  to  the  Union  was  raised  to  divert  their  assaults  upon  the  Con- 
stitution. It  was  the  latter,  and  not  the  former,  that  was  in  danger." — Benton. 
In  the  explanatory  phrase  "that  is,''^  that  often  seems  to  be  used  in  the  sense  of 
this.  Sometimes  that  is  simply  more  forcible  than  the.  "Tliat  man  who  said  so, 
is  mistaken."  "  I  trust  I  have  none  of  that  other  spirit  which  would  drag  an- 
gels down." — Webster. 

Very  is  nearly  equivalent  to  a  compound  personal  pronoun,  or  to  the  word 
even.     "  Our  very  existence  depends  upon  it"==Our  existence  itself,  etc. 

What  and  which,  whether  interrogative  or  responsive,  and  also  their  com- 
pounds, point  out  objects  definitely,  and  sometimes  indefinitely.  "What  man 
among  you?"  "Whatever  motives  govern  him."  "All  persons  whatsoever.'^ 
^'■What  money  he  earned,  she  spent."  "By  which  charter,  certain  rights  were 
secured  to  us." 

Yon  or  yonder  strongly  points  out  something  insight,  "  Fori  hawthorn 
bush."     "Yonder  hills,  robed  in  misty  blue,  were  the  haunts  of  my  childhood." 


?  234.  Since  every  quality  or  attribute  must  belong  to  some  object, 
adjectives  are  said  to  belong  to  the  substantives  which  they  qualify  or 
limit. 

?  235.  When  an  adjective  relates  equally  to  two  or  more  substan- 
tives, it  should  be  parsed  accordingly. 

Ex. — "  The  APPLES,  PEAPvS,  and  peacues,  are  ripe.''''  "A  man  of  great  sensibil- 
rry  and  genius."  "  That  house  and  lot."  "The  cow  and  calf  are  while.''''  "A 
wh'ite  cow  and  calf."  But,  "A  white  cow  and  a  calf,''  "A  white  cow  and  her  calf," 
do  not  mean  that  the  calf  is  white  too.  "  He  is  a  venerable  old  man."  Here  vene- 
rahle  qualifies  old  man,  rather  than  man  only. 

.  236.  When  two  or  more  adjectives  come  between  an  article  and  a 
plural  noun,  they  sometimes  qualify  each  only  a  part  of  what  the  noun 
denotes. 

Ex.—"  The  New  and  Old  Testament ^"=The  New  Testament  and  the  Old  Tes- 
tament ;  not,  The  New  Testameuts  and  the  Old  Testaments. 


150  ADJECTIVES. 

?  237.  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  without  a  substantive,  to  com- 
plete the  sense  of  a  preceding  participle  or  infinitive.  The  adjective  re- 
lates in  sense  to  the  object  suggested  by  a  previous  possessive ;  or  else  it 
relates  indefinitely  to  some  being,  or  to  all  beings  whatsoever. 

Ex. — "  To  BE  good  is  to  be  happy.''''  "  These  are  the  consequences  of  being  too 
fond  of  glory."  "  Ilis  being  rich  was  the  cause  of  his  ruin."  "  There  is  nothing 
lost  by  BEING  careftiV  The  phrase  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  or  to  an  adjective  and 
noun :  also,  a  noun  that  will  preserve  the  sense,  can  generally  be  supplied. 
^'■Goodness  is  happiness.^''  "  These  are  the  consequences  of  too  mu^h  fondness  for 
glory."  "  His  riches  were  the  cause  of  his  ruin."  "  To  be  a  good  person^  is,  to  be 
&,  happy  pet'son;''''  or,  "To  be  good  people,  is,  to  be  happy  people.''''  "These  are 
the  consequences  of  being  a  nation  too  fond  of  glory."  "  His  being  a  rich  young 
man,  was  the  cause  of  his  ruin."  "  There  is  nothing  lost  by  being  a  careful  person 
— by  being  careful  persons.''^ 

.  A  word  that  is  usually  an  adjective,  has  sometimes  the  sense  or  mo- 
difications of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  and  may  then  be  parsed  accordingly . 

Ex. — "  Burke  wrote  on  the  heautiftd  and  the  suU'ime.''''  "  O'er  the  vast  ab- 
rupV — Milton.  "  We  crossed  the  mighty  deep.''''  "  In  the  dead  of  night." 
"  Companion  of  the  dead.'''' — Campbell.  "  Children  are  afraid  to  go  into  the  dark.'''' 
"  I_  prefer  green  to  red.''''  "The  past,  at  least,  is  secure." — Webster.  "These 
primitives  have  no  derivatives,^''  "  Between  the  nohWs  palace  and  the  hut." 
"  Where  cither's  fall  determines  both  tlierr  fates."  "Every  one  must  have  heard 
of  the  tragical  fate  of  Etnmett." — Irv'mg. 

?  Such  a  word,  when  used  as  a  noun,  expresses  the  quality  by  a  gen- 
eral reference  to  some  or  all  objects  possessing  it ;  or  it  sets  forth  some 
particular  object  or  class  as  characterized  by  it. 

When  an  adverb  is  joined  to  such  a  word,  the  word  must  be  parsed  as  an  ad- 
jective, belonging  to  such  a  substantive  understood  as  will  make  sense  ;  namely, 
th'mg,  things, persons,  people,  place,  style,  one,  on£s,  &c.  :  as,  "  The  truly  wise  are 
not  avaricious  ;"  "  How  much  have  you  got  ?"  "  Nearly  all  were  captured ;"  "  A 
fine  instance  of  the  truly  sublime,''''  better, — "  of  true  subllmity.^^ 

So,  indeed,  should  every  such  word  be  parsed,  when  the  word  denoting  the 
person  or  thing  referred  to,  is  obviously  understood,  or  can  be  supplied  without 
injuring  the  sense;  as,  "  Of  the  apples  he  took  the  larger  [ones]  and  left  the 
smaller^'' [ones],  "  Turn  to  the  ?e/i!"  [hand  or  side].  It  is  generally  better  to  parse 
the  adjective  as  a  substantive,  only  when  it  has  so  far  usurped  the  character  of  one 
that  the  expression  with  the  most  suitable  word  supplied,  would  not  exactly  con- 
vey the  same  sense,  or  else  would  be  tedious  and  clumsy.  Many  grammarians, 
though  perhaps  needlessly,  parse  as  pronouns  most  of  the  definitive  adjectives 
above  described,  when  the  modified  substantive  is  omitted.  Such  parsing  is  ob- 
jectionable, furthermore,  inasmuch  as  the  words  generally  may  be,  and  frequently 
are,  modified  by  adverbs. 

When  an  adjective  is  used  substantively,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  tell  whether 
it  sliould  be  parsed  as  a  noun  or  as  a  pronoun.  This  will  depend  on  whether  the 
word  is  descriptive  of  a  class,  like  a  common  noun,  or  is  merely  designative — 
belonging  to  the  class  called  form-words,  and  applicable  to  objects  tliat  differ  in 
kind. 

.  An  adjective  sometimes  becomes  an  adverb,  without  a  change  of  form. 
Ex. — "  I  like  it  lest.''''     "  Go,  get  you  to  my  lady's  chamber  ;  and  tell  her  that 
if  she  PAINT  an  inch  thick,  yet  to  this  favor  will  she  come  at  lasV^—AShahespeare. 


ADJEOTIVES. EXERCISES.  157 

EXERCISES. 
Examples  to  be  Analyzed  and  Parsed. 


Ihrse  the  > 

1. 

*A  dark  cloud  came  over  the  city.     The  summer*  breezes  blow  soft*" 

and  cooP".     The  annual,  autumnal,  desolating''  fires  have  almost  destroyed 

this  well-timbered  country.     Horses  are    as^^  valuable''   as'^  mules  [are]. 

Homer  was   a  greater*^  poet  than  Virgil.     Here  the  valleys  are  more^' 

autiful,  and  the  mountains  [are]  less'^  rugged'"  and  more  fertile.     Then 

nies  an  elevated  rolling  prairie  country.     The  sweetest®  flowers  fringed 

'i  little  stream.    The  river  is  highest  in  June.    The  cedars  highest  on  the 

ountain,  are  the  smallest  [cedars].     The  last  blow  was  more  fatal.     The 

remost  horse  is  superior  to  the  rest. 

2. 
Up'^  springs  the  lark,  shrill-voiced  and  loud,  the  messenger'  of  morn. 
ITc  treated  poor'  and  rich  alike.      To  be'  poor^  is  more  honorable''  than  to 
ijc  dishonorably  rich  [is  honorable]. 

The  beautiful'  fields  and  forests  now  in  view,  were  very  extensive'", 
:ind  governed"  by  some  Peruvian  prince  or  princess. — Prescott. 

On  the  grassy  bank  stood  a  tall  waving  ash,  sound  to  the  very  top. — 
Dkkens. 

How  brilliant  and  mirthful  the  light'  of  her  eye, 
Like'"  a  star^  glancing''-*  out'^  from  the  blue^  of  the  sky  ! —  Whittier. 
There  brighter  suns  dispense  serener  light, 
•  And  milder  moons  imparadise  the  night. — Montgomery. 
Where  smiling  spring'  its  earliest  visit*  paid. 
And  parting  summer's  lingering  blooms'  delayed. —  Goldsmith. 
3, 
There  are  two^  pear-trees  in  the  second  row.     Any  man  can  carry  the 
whole  limb  with  all  its  apples.      Would   any  man  defend  infidelity  by 
such  or  any  other  arguments  ?     No  man  is  perfectly  independent  of  all 
others".    There  is  a  horse  for  each  man.     Many  a  fine  intellect  is  "buried 
in  poverty.     Neither  course  is  proper.     This  chair  is  nearer  to  me  than 
that'".    Who  else  came  ?     One  story  is  good  until  another'"  is  told.     Silver 
and  gold  have  I  none^^.     These  resolutions  reasserted  the  sole  right  of 
the  colonies  to  tax  themselves  in  all  cases  whatsoever'". 

•  It  may  be  -well,  when  time  allows  it,  for  the  pupil  to  descend,   in  parsing,  according 

to  our  clas.sifieation  of  adjectives :  thus, adjective  ;   descriptive  or  definitive :  common 

proper,  compound,  2ifono7ninal,  &c. ;  distributive,  demonstrative,  &c.     It  may  also  be  well 

to  say,  in  parsing  some  descriptive  adjectives, "it  can  not  be  compared  with  ijroprioty; 

and  belongs,"  etc. 

(a.)  "/Swrw-jjier"  is  an  adjective, — a  -word  ***  definitive,  etc.  (?/.)  ^^  Desolating'''  is  an 
adjective,  — a  word  *  *  *  participial,  it  is  a  participle  ascribing  *  *  *  and  belongs,  etc.     (c.) 

in  the  positive  degree,   it  ascribes  an  equal  degree  of  the  quality ;  and  b(dongs,  etc. 

id.)  comparative  degree,  it  ascribes  the  quality  in  a  higher  d(>gree  to  one  object  as  com- 
pared with  another;   and  belongs,  etc.     (e.)  in  th&  superlative  degree,  it  ascribes  the 

quality,  etc.  (See  definitions  of  tlie  supeilative  degree.)  (/.) and  belongs  to  people  un- 
derstood, according  to  Rule  X.     (g.)  and  belongs  ta  jterson  or  persons  understood,  ai"- 

cording  to  Rale  X.      Or  saij, '"  and  is  here  used  without  a  substantive,  according  to  Note 

X."    (A.) and  it  belongs  to  the  phrase  "To  be  poor,"  according  to  Rule  X.     (i.)  — —and 

belongs  to  '■'■fields  andforents"  according  to  Rule  X.  (j.)  '■'■Two"  is  an  adjective  *  *  *  dvfini- 
Use  *  *  *  numeral  *  *  *  cardinal  *  *  *  and  belongs,  etc.  (fc.)  "  Kone^'  is  hire  perhaps  parsed 
best  as  an  adjective  belonging  to  "  silver"  and  "  gold,"  notwithstanding  it  can  not  be  phieed 
next  to  them.  "We  shall  have  none  end." — Bacon.  It  is  not  essential  that  an  adjective 
must  always  be  capable  of  standing  next  to  its  substantive. 


168  ADJECTIVES. EXERCISES. 


Examples  to  bo  Corrected. 

All  the  liabilities  to  error  in  regard  to  adjectives,  may  bo  reduced  to  the 
following  heads : — 

1.   Choice.     2.  Numher.     3.  Comparison.     4.  Position. 
1.   Choice. 

1.  In  the  use  of  adjectives,  care  should  be  taken  to  select  the  most  ap- 
propriate for  the  meaning  intended. 

2.  Adverbs  should  not  be  unnecessarily  used  as  adjectives. 

3.  Them  should  not  be  used  for  those. 

Them  boys  are  very  idle.  "What  do  you  ask  for  them  apples  ?  Let  s  omo 
of  them  boys  sit  on  them  other  benches.  I  have  three  horses,  and  you  may 
ride  either  of  them.  Neither  of  my  dozen  razors  is  worth  a  cent.  Further 
information  may  be  obtained  from  either  of  the  [eight]  professors.  Neither  of 
the  [six]  hats  is  large  enough  for  my  head.  None  of  tlie  two  pleases  me. 
Any  one  of  the  two  roads  will  take  you  to  town.  Tall  pines  grew  on  either 
side  of  the  river.  Each  one  of  the  tliousand  soldiers  received  a  guinea.  You 
may  take  e'er  a  one  or  ne'er  a  one,  just  as  you  please.  That  very  point  which 
we  are  now  discussing,  was  lately  decided  in  Kentucky.  These  very  men  with 
whom  you  traveled  yesterday,  are  now  in  jail.  There  seems  to  be  little  glory 
in  doing  what  every  body  can  do.  — any  body —  Memory  and  forecast  just 
returns  engage;  this  pointing  back  to  youth,  that  on  ti  age. — Pope.  The 
whole  school  were  at  play ;  some  at  marbles,  others  at  ball,  these  at  racing, 
those  at  jumping  the  rope,  and  some  few  at  mumble-peg.  (Use  some^  and'lastly 
say,  "a%£?  a  few  at  mumhle-peg.'''')  Such  capers  are  unbefitting  a  man  of  his 
age.  — unsuitable  to —  Such  verbs  as  assume  ec?,  are  regular.  Such  persons 
as  are  unprovided,  will  please  to  apply  at  the  ofBee.     All  persons  that  are,  &c. 

There  are  not  less  than  fifteen  banks  in  the  city  of  New  York  that  suspended 
to-day.  I  have  caught  less  fish  than  you.  A  proper  fraction  is  less  than  one, 
because  it  expresses  less  parts  than  it  takes  to  make  a  unit. — D.  P.  Golhurn. 
The  summit  of  the  hill  was  covered  with  stinted  trees.  (Say  "s^Mn^et?,"  for 
stinted  is  usually  restricted  to  eating  and  drinking.)       It  all  tends  to  show,  that 

our  whole  plans  had  been  discovered.     The  whole  tends that  all  our^  &c.     We 

stand  the  last,  and,  if  we  fall,  the  latest  experiment  of  self-government.  His 
now  wife  is  a  cousin  of  his  former  wife.  The  then  minister  was  unusually 
talented.  Our  bullets  glanced  harmlessly  from  the  alligator's  back.  Open  the 
door  widely.  We  were  all  sitting  quietly  and  comfortably  round  the  fire. 
The  shutters  were  painted  greenly.  We  arrived  safely,  after  all  our  misfortunes. 
Tins  rose  blooms  most  fairly.  Velvet  feels  smoothly.  I  live  freely  from  care. 
John  reads  too  loudly,  and  James  reads  too  lowly.  {I.  e.,  John  is  too  loud,, 
when  ....  James  is  too  low  in  voice,  when — )  Yet  often  touching  will  wear 
gold.  — frequent—  It  is  the  often  doing  of  a  thing,  that  makes  it  a  haiiit. 
He  makes  seldom  mention  of  his  relatives.  He  seldom  mentions,  &c.  Motion 
upwards  is  more  agreeable  than  motion  downwards.  Upward  motion,  &c.  II;;- 
made  a  soon  and  prosperous  voyage.  You  jump  too  highly  when  you  dance. 
The  news  of  my  marriage  is  a  rumor  merely.  — a  mere  rumor.  When  a  noun 
stands  independently  or  absolutely  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  in  the  nomi- 
native case.  The  relative  should  be  placed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  its  ante- 
CKlent.  A  regularly  and  well-constructed  sentence.  The  symptoms  are  two* 
f'tld,  inwards  and  outwards.    Apples  are  more  plenty  than  peaches. — N.  Wehster. 


ADJECTIVES. —  EXERCISER.  159 

2.  Nainber. 

Adjectives  implying  number,  must  agree  in  this  respect  with  the  sub- 
;:-iantives  to  which  they  belong. 

a.  The  nouns  which  are  not  changed  in  form  to  express  number,  are  sin- 
;^ular  when  they  denote  one  object,  and  plural  when  they  denote  more. 

You  have  been  playing  this  two  hours.  This  oats,  I  fear,  "will  never  come 
up.  Give  him  this  memoranda.  How  do  you  like  these  sort  of  things? 
You  will  always  see  those  kind  of  men  sitting  and  loafering  about  taverns. 
— men  of  that  kind —  I  never  wear  those  sort  of  hoops.  Take  up  this  ashes. 
liiose  molasses  I  bought  yesterday.  That  tongs  should  be  left  in  the  kitchen. 
Tiiat  victuals  will  last  us  to-day  and  to-morrow.  "We  have  not  much  provi- 
sions for  the  journey.  — not  many  provisions —  or,  riot  much  provision—' 
She  was  very  extravagant  in  dressing,  and  by  these  means  became  poor.  He 
was  indolent  and  extravagant,  and  by  that  means  became  a  pauper.  He  had 
no  other  thoughts  than  that  of  amassing  money  and  hoarding  it.  There  are  no 
thoughts  more  paiufal  than  that  of  suspense  and  disappointment.  If  that  be 
the  facts  of  the  case,  he  shall  not  escape  from  punishment.  Every  reasonable 
amends  have  been  made.     All  reasonable  amends^  &c. 

3.   Comparison. 

a.  The  mode  of  comparing,  b.  Double  comparison,  c.  Adjectives  that 
should  not  he  compared,     d.  The  terms  denoting  the  objects  compared. 

a.  Adjectives  should  be  compared  in  the  best  manner  according  to 
usage  and  euphony. 

It  was  the  powerfuUest  speech  I  ever  heard.  I  think  the  rose  is  the  beauti 
fullest  of  flowers.  Omar  was  the  faithfuUest  of  his  followers. — Irving.  The 
fox  is  the  cunningest  of  animals.  Tliero  are  few  bachelors  soberer  than  ho  is. 
A  cleverer  man  is  not  to  be  found.  You  are  welcomer  now  than  you  were 
then.  He  is  the  awkwardest,  backwardest  fellow  we  have  over  had.  This 
la  a  reasonabler  proposition  than  the  other.  By  silence,  many  a  dunderpate, 
like  the  owl,  the  stupidest  of  birds,  comes  to  be  considered  the  very  type  of  wis- 
dom.— Irving.  They  unfortunately  escaped  to  the  insecurest  places.  I  never 
was  at  a  ploasanter  party.  This  pink  is  more  red  than  the  other.  Young 
folks  never  had  a  more  merry  time.  This  is  the  baddest  accident  that  ever 
happened  to  us.  The  furthermost  and  the  hindermost  wagons  are  in  the 
greatest  danger.  The  upmost  room  was  occupied  by  the  gentlemen,  and  the 
lowermost  by  the  ladies.  He  is  a  profoundest  philosopher.  (Observe  that  the 
idiom  of  our  language  allows  us  to  say,  "  a  most  profound,''^  but  not,  "  a  pro- 
,  foundesty)  A  clearer,  more  rapid  and  impetuous  stream,  flows  from  no  other 
part  of  these  mountains.  A  more  clear,  rapid,  and  impetuous,  &c.  The  com- 
missioners selected  the  firmest,  narrowest,  and  shallowest  part  of  the  river,  for 
the  bridge. 

b.  Adjectives  should  not  be  doubly  compared. 

More  greater  calamities  yet  await  us.  After  the  most  strictest  sect  of  our 
religion  I  Uved  a  pharisee.  The  duke  of  Milan,  and  his  more  braver  daughter. 
— Shakespeare.  This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all.  How  much  are  ye 
letter  than  the  fowls.  There  are  few  more  politer  men  than  he.  The  Most 
Highes;fc  shall  judge  between  me  and  thee.  Worser  misfortunes  yet  await  us. 
If  he  told  that  tale  on  me,  he  is  the  most  meanest  boy  that  ever  was.  I  never 
heard  a  more  truer  saying.  I  think  her  less  fairer  than  her  sister.  You  came 
more  earlier  than  I  expected.       A  farmer's  life  is  the  most  happiest  of  all. 


ItJO  ADJECTIVES. EXERCISES. 

Those  woro  the  least  happiest  days  of  my  life.  The  worst  may  become 
more  worse,  —still  worse.  Tlie  most  hindmost  man  was  captured  by  the 
Indians.  He  was  the  most  unluckiest  of  the  speculators.  The  lesser  quan- 
tity I  remove  to  the  other  side  of  the  equation.  This  was  the  most  unwisest 
thing  you  could  have  done.  She  always  dressed  in  the  most  costliest  and  finest 
silks.  He  fished  at  the  most  quiet  and  deepest  place.  — tlie  deepest  and  most 
quiet  place ;  or,  — the  most  deep  and  quiet  pkice. 

C.  A  word  that  usually  has  an  absolute  meanincr,  should  never  be  used 
in  a  limited  sense,  unless  the  language  does  not  afford  a  better  expression 
for  the  intended  meaning. 

His  performance  was  the  most  perfect  of  all.  — best —  These  artificial 
flowers  are  the  most  perfect  I  ever  saw.  (Perhaps  allowable.)  Virtue  confers 
supremest  dignity  on  man,  and  should  be  his  chiefest  desire.  — supreme  .... 
chief  desire.  A  more  rectangular  figure  would  hold  more.  A  rectangular — 
or,  A  figure  more  nearly  rectangular,  &c.  I  would  rather  have  a  squarer  box. 
The  roundest  pebbles  are  found  on  the  extremest  part  of  the  sand-bar.  The 
heath-peach  is  more  preferable  than  the  Indian-peach.  The  report  was  not  so 
universally  spread  as  was  supposed.  — not  so  generally  or  widely —  The  most 
universal  customs  are  apt  to  last  longest.  He  has  a  most  spotless  reputation. 
Cotton  and  sugar  are  most  principally  raised  in  the  Southern  States.  — mostly 
raised —  or,  principally  raised —  Her  insolence  is  most  insutferable.  — almost 
insufferable.  Aristides  was  the  least  unjust  of  the  Athenians,  Angelina  is 
the  least  imperfect  of  her  sex.  I  trust  the  people  are  more  uncorrupted  than 
their  leaders.  — less  corrupted —  I  hope  they  will  be  more  undeceivable  in 
future.      The  side  of  a  hill  is  more  ineligible  for  a  house,  than  the  summit. 

d.  1.  The  superlative  must  be  used,  when  three  or  more  are  compared ; 
and  the  comparative  is  usually  required,  when  but  two  are  compared. 

The  oldest  of  the  two  boys  was  sent  to  college.  The  youngest  of  the  two 
sisters  is  the  handsomest.  He  is  the  stouter  of  all  the  boys  in  our  school. 
Which  is  the  largest  number, — the  minuend  or  the  subtrahend?  SeUm  is  the 
liveliest  horse  of  the  pair.  The  latter  one  of  the  three  had  forgotten  his  books. 
The  house  has  but  two  stories,  and  the  uppermost  rooms  are  not  yet  finished. 
Women  are  the  weakest  sex.  Which  can  run  the  fastest, — ^your  horse  or  mine  ? 
His  wife  is  the  best  manager;  therefore  let  her  rule  him.  Of  the  two  Latin 
poets,  Virgil  and  Horace,  the  first  is  the  most  celebrated.  A  trochee  has  the 
former  syllable  accented,  and  the  latter  unaccented. 

2.  The  superlative  degree  represents  the  described  objects  as  being  a 
part  of  the  others. 

3.  All  comparisons  without  the  superlative  degree,  do  not  strictly  rep- 
resent the  objects  denoted  by  one  terra,  as  being  a  part  of  those  denoted 
by  the  other. 

a.  Tlie  word  other,  and  similar  terms,  imply  two  distinct  parts,  and  but 
one  kind  or  general  class. 

That  boy  is  the  brightest  of  all  his  classmates.  China  has  the  greatest 
population  of  any  nation  on  earth.  Solomon  was  wiser  than  any  of  the  an- 
cient kings.  Jiicob  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  chUdren.  Webster's 
spelling-book  is  the  most  popular  of  any  yet  published.  Youth  is  the  most 
important  period  of  any  in  life.  That  grove  is  the  shadiest  and  coolest  place 
of  any— of  any  others— of  all  others.  Webster  is  one  of  the  greatest  orators 
of  any  country.  — may  well  be  ran/ced  among  the  greatest  orators  of  any  country. 
Our  grammar  lessons  are  the  hardest  of  any  we  have.    This  is  a  better-furnishr  d 


ADJECTIVES. — OBESRVATICrS.  161 

room  than  any  in  the  house.  This  is  the  best-furnished  room  of  any  in  the 
house.  There  is  nothing  so  good  for  a  sprain  as  cold  water.  — nothing 
else —  He  was  less  partial  than  any  historian  that  ever  wrote.  — any  other — 
It  is  a  better  treatise  on  this  subject  than  any  that  ever  was  written.  (The 
treatise  could  not  be  better  than  itself)  None  of  our  magazines  is  so  interest- 
ing to  me  as  Harper's.  No  other  one  of,  &c.  Natural  scenery  pleases  me  the 
best  of  any  thing  else.  Nothing  pleases  me  so  much  as  natural  scenery.  In 
no  case  is  man  so  apt  to  act  unjustly,  as  where  his  love  or  hatred  interferes. 
Noah  and  his  family  outlived  all  the  people  who  lived  before  the  flood, — N. 
Webster.  (They  did  not  outlive  themselves.)  That  tree  overtops  aU  the  trees 
m  the  forest. 

Adam,  the  goodliest  of  men  since  born, 

His  sons ;  the  fairest  of  her  daughters,  Eve. — Milton. 

4.  Position.  ^        i 

1.  Adjectives  should  be  placed  where  they  will  show  clearly  what 
word  or  words  they  are  to  qualify  or  limit.     The  sense  is  the  best  guide. 

a.  Such  an  arrangement  of  words  should  be  avoided,  as  will  make  the 
adjective  modify  any  other  than  its  proper  word. 

b.  Of  a  series  of  coordinate  adjectives  that  may  be  differently  com- 
pared, it  is  generally  more  elegant  to  place  the  shorter  ones  before  the 
longer. 

Remark. — A  noun  with  its  adjective  may  be  limited  or  qualified  by  another 
adjective,  and  these  again  by  another,  and  so  on.  In  such  cases,  the  adjectives 
denoting  the  more  casual  qualities,  usually  precede  the  others.  "  An  old  man "" 
"  A  good  old  man ;"  "  A  venerable  good  old  man ;"  "  A  stout  venerable  good  old 
man;"  "Two  stout  venerable  good  old  men;"  "The  first  two  stout  venerably 
good  old  men." 

The  congregation  will  please  to  sing  the  three  first  and  the  two  last  stanzas 
of  the  hymn.  The  four  first  benches  are  reserved  for  pupils ;  the  others  are 
for  visitors.  The  three  last  mails  brought  me  no  letter.  I  have  just  bought 
a  new  pair  of  gloves.  — a  pair  of  new  gloves.  This  is  an  excellent  tract  of 
land.  The  heads  of  the  horses  were  all  adorned  with  ribbons.  He  is  a  very 
young  tall  man.  All  were  drowned  except  the  captain  and  other  three  offi- 
cers. If  I  be  served  such  another  trick,  I'll  have  my  brains  taken  out. — Shak. 
In  a  few  more  years,  not  even  an  Indian  burial  mound  will  be  lefl  untouched. 
The  dress  had  a  row  of  silk  fancy  green  buttons,  and  strings  of  satin  pink  rib- 
bon. He  is  one  of  the  most  influential  and  richest  men  in  the  city.  There  is 
not  a  more  fertile,  fairer,  and  more  dehghtful  valley  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  eagle  soared  above  the  mountain  high.  He  is  the  apparent  heir  to  the 
crown.  The  convent  is  surrounded  by  a  fifteen  feet  high  and  a  three  feet  thick 
wall.  — a  wall  fifteen —  A  large  reward  and  pardon  will  be  oftered  to  the 
informer.     Pardon  and  a  large  reward,  &c. 


OBSERVATIONS. 


All  and  whole  are  sometimes  misapplied,  one  for  the  other ;  and  less  is  frequently 
misused  for /ewer.  "Tiie  whole  woi-ld"=All  the  world  :  but  the  plural  phrases 
"All  the  apples,"  "  The  whole  apples,"  are  not  equivalent ;  all  being  opposed  to 
a  part  of  the  number,  and  whole  to  a  part  of  each  object.  "The  bear  received  no 
less  than  six  balls."  Say,  " no  fewer,"  or,  "not  fewer."  Zes«  is  apt  to  suggest 
qtcantiti/,  while  fewer  can  suggest  number  only.  Such  phrases  as  *^one  or  more  per- 
sons,''^ which  Murray  said  should  be  ^'one  person,  or  more  than  one.''  are  now  con- 


152  JVPJEOTIVFP. OBSEKVA.TIONS. 

sidered  allowable.  "  Every  village  or  gurrisoa  li;\3  one,  or  more  scape-goats  of  this 
kind." — Irving.  .  1,-0      •  ^     1 

Much  that  we  now  consider  erroneous  English,  is  merely  old  Eagli.sn  that  wad 
once  in  fiishion  and  in  good  repute.  Of  this  kind  are  such  forms  as  "  heautiful&r, 
powerfulest,  mrtuoasesV  "  Benedict  is  not  the  vii?ioj)e/uUest  husband  that  I  know." 
— Shakespeare.  ... 

Most  adjectives  may  be  taken  either  m  an  absolute  or  in  a  relative  sense.  lu 
the  former  they  suggest  that  the  object  has  the  quality  ia  full,  or,  in  what  is  usu- 
ally considered  the  full  state  ;  in  the  latter,  that  it  merely  has  of  the  qualiti/.  The 
latter  sense  must  often  be  inferred  from  certain  uses  of  the  comparative  or  the 


_.   ,  „__       ,  .  ,       ^  y 

good.''''  "  I  feel  somewhat  letter  to-day,  though  I  am  by  no  means  toelV  ^'■Sadder 
XM&aihQ  saddest  mghV— Byron.  '' Who  canst  the  w'vsest  iwis-e/- make,  and  babes 
as  ww«  as  they." — Gowper.  "The  poor  man  that  loves  Christ,  is  ricAer  than  the 
richest  man  that  hates  him." — Bunyan.  '•  It  is  almost  as  thin  as  the  thinnest  pa- 
per."— Chambers.  "And  in  the  lowest  deep  a  lower  deep,  still  threatening  to  de- 
vour me,  opens  wide." — Milton.  From  the.se  examples,  whicli  are  all  correct,  we 
may  infer  that  the  comparative  may  sometimes  be  estimated  from  the  superlative 
or  the  comparative  ;  and  that  these  degrees  may  occasionally  be  considered,  equal 
to  or  even  below  the  positive,  as  well  as  above  it. 

1.  The  comparative  may  be  estimated  from  the  positive  taken  in  the  full  or  ab- 
solute sense;  as,  "  Girard  is  rich,  but  Astor  is  still  richer.''''  "  The  pipers  loud  and 
louder  blew,  the  dancers  quick  and  quicker  flew." — Burns.  2.  It  may  imply  a  pos- 
itive taken  in  a  relative,  or  not  in  the  full,  sense ;  as,  "  If  you  have  but  five  dol- 
lars, you  are  rkher  than  I  am."  '•'■K  fuller  explanation  ;"  "A  less  thorough  investi- 
gation ;"  "A  more  perfect  system  ;"  "A  less  perfect  system."  3.  Sometimes  it  is 
estimated  from  the  comj:)arative  or  the  superlative ;  as,  "  My  kite  rose  h'lgher,  h'lgher^ 
higher,  and  higher^  until  it  was  highest,  and  far  higher  than  the  highest  of  all  the 
otlier  kites."  4.  Tne  comparative  may  be  estimated  from  the  positive  of  some  other 
quality  or  stat6 ;  as,  "He  is  more  intelligent  than  rich.''''  "  They  are  letter  clothed  than 
fed.''''  5.  Sometimes  it  seems  to  be  estimated  from  the  comparative  of  the  opposite 
quality;  as,  "  The  wealthier  citizens  were  disposed  to  make  peace,  but  the  poorer 
were  not."  "The  higher  classes  are  generally  well  educated,  but  the  lower  are 
not."  6.  Sometimes  it  implies  that  the  increase  or  decrease  of  one  quality  proceeds 
uniformly  with  that  of  another;  as,  "  The  older  the  wine,  the  letter  it  is."  "  The 
sooner,  the  better.^'' 

1.  Superlative  estimated  from  the  positive  absolute ;  as,  "The  bravest  of  the 
brave.''"'  2.  Superlative  estimated  from  the  positive  taken  in  a  relative  or  limited 
sense ;  as,  "  Tlie  creek  was  too  shallow  for  dipping  with  a  backet,  even  where  it 


was  deepest."    3.  Superlative  estimated  from  the  comparative  or  the  superlative 
as,  "The  ripest  of  the  ri^er  peaches  were  delicious."     ^^T'ne^nest  of  t'ne  fnest 
horses  took  the  sweepstakes."     (I  think  that  the  last  two  sentences  are  proper.) 

The  superlative  degree  seems  not  always  to  imply  an  intervening  comparative, 
but  sometimes  to  be  estimated  directly  from  the  positive  of  the  same  quality  ;  as, 
"  The  last  years  of  his  practice  were  more  lucrative  than  the  frat.^^  "The  highest 
classes  are  generally  rich  and  haughty  "  [but  the  lowest  classes  are  poor  and  hum- 
ble]. "  He  sold  the  largest  apples,  and  made  the  others  into  cider."  In  fact,  this 
degree  seems  to  be  allowable  in  speaking  of  two,  when  the  design  is  not  so  much 
to  show  that  one  is  superior  to  the  other,  as  to  suggest  that  there  is  none  above  it 
or  beyond  it  that  is  superior  to  it ;  in  other  words,  when  we  do  not  look  back  to 
the  inferior  objects,  but  rather  look  for  superior  objects  and  And  none.  "Tlio 
fartfie«t  house  on  tlio  peninsula  is  my  residence,"  could  be  said  if  there  were  but 
two  houses  on  the  peninsula.  "An  iambus  has  the  /irst  syllable  unaccented,  and 
the  i(M<  accented."  ^^This  refers  to  the  nearest  object;  that,  to  something  more 
distant."  "  His  antagonist  made  the  ablest  speech  ;"*'  i.  e.,  1  heard  none  that  was 
better.    Sometimes,  also,  the  comparative  tends  to  suggest  pi'oportion. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  many  qualities  or  attributes  e.\ist  in  more  degrees,  or 
In  much  greater  variety,  than  the  degrees  of  comparison  can  express.  Other  modeb 
of  expression  are  therefore  often  used  to  show  degrees  or  varieties  of  the  quality, 
and  frequently  with  fine  etfect.  "A  lig?U-<in'on—dark-<r\\'an—e.meraU-f:Ye/^ii— 
p«^grecn  color."    ''Pink  rod,  cri7n8on  red',  safron  red,  strawberr;/  red,  Uueish  red 


ADJECTIVES. OBSERVATIONS.  163 

(—purple)."  '^Boiling  hot,  starh  mad,  stone  dead,  dead  drunk."  "She  ia  most 
beaatifal — ineomporaUy  beautiful — angelic.''''  "  Slie  appeared  in  a  snow-white  dresa, 
and  a  rich  saffron-colored  shawl."  Poets  take  greater  liberty,  in  the  use  of  adjec- 
tives, than  is  allowed  to  prose  writers ;  as,  "That  heavenliest  hour  of  Heaven  is 
worthiest  thee !" — Byron.  "And  you  shall  see  who  ha^  the  properest  notion." 
— Id.  "A  foot  more  light,  a  step  more  trae.'''' — Scott.  Perhaps  in  light  literature, 
such  expressions  as  the  following  are  quite  proper  :  "  Her  husband  was  none  of 
the  soberest.''' — Dickens.  "  None  of  the  most  sober,'''  would  here,  I  tliink,  sound 
rather  stiff  and  affected.  More  and  most  are  sometimes  preferred  in  prose,  for 
greater  empiiasis,  or  to  express  the  degree  of  a  shorter  and  a  longer  adjective  in 
the  briefest  uniform  manner  ;  as,  "  He  is  more  bold  and  actioe,''^  for,  "  He  is  bolder 
and  more  active.''^  "  She  is  a  most  bright,  polished,  and  amiable  young  lady." 
Most  is  usually  required  after  a  or  an,  or  to  express  the  superlative  of  eminence  ; 
as,  "A  most  polite  gentleman;"  "A  most  queer  sight."  Such  adjectives  aa  per- 
fect,  round,  extreme,  correct,  blind,  and  still,  are  sometimes  compared  when  not 
used  in  their  full  sense.  "  More  perfect" ^-^-eare/-  to  perfection  ;  "  most  perfect"= 
nearest  to  perfection :  both  implying  less  than  perfect.  It  has  been  well  argued, 
that  if  '''■  greater  perfection''''  is  an  allowable  phrase,  why  should  not  '•'•m^re  perfecir 
be  allowable.  To  say,  "  She  is  the  least  imperfect  of  her  sex,"  would  imply  that 
tlie  whole  sex  is  quite  imperfect.  "  Aristides  was  the  least  unjust  of  the  Athe- 
nians," is  as  mucii  as  to  say,  "The  Athenians  were  all  unjust, — a  set  of  knaves,  of 
whom  Aristides  was  only  not  the  worst  one."  The  adjectives  should  have  been 
"  most  perfect,"  "most  just."  Such  expressions  as  "the  most  unconquerable," 
"  the  less  imperfect,"  "the  least  imperfect,"  "  the  more  unnecessary,"  "  the  most 
unbecoming,"  "  the  most  unnatural,"  "most  uncertain,"  "  a  most  superior,"  "a 
most  inferior,"  "  the  most  blameless,"  "the  most  worthless,"  "a  fuller,"  "the 
most  complete,"  "the  completest,"  "a  most  thorough,"  "the  straightest,"  "a 
straighter,"  "  a  more  reddish,"  "  a  less  yellowish,"  &o.,  are  all,  in  certain  cases, 
allowable. 

Mdny,  more,  most,  have  for  their  o'^^o^S.tes  few,  fewer,  fewest ;  much,  more,  most, 
have  Vittle,  less,  least ;  great,  greater,  greatest,  have  little,  small,  smaller,  lesser 
(implying  dignity),  smallest,  leait.  Lesser  should  generally  be  rejected  ;  though  it 
is  sometimes  used,  by  good  writers,  in  opposition  to  greater.  Also  the  phrase 
"  Lesser  Asia,"  is  sometimes  used  for  the  more  elegant  phrase  "Asia  Minor." 
Worse  is  itself  a  comparative,  therefore  worser  must  be  a  double  comparative, 
which  is  improper.  So  is  "most  happiest,"  for  instance,  a  double  superlative, 
and  therefore  improper.  Adjectives  should  not  even  seem  to  be  doubly  compared ; 
thus,  "  A  more  elegant  and  simpler  method,"  mi^ht  be  supposed  to  mean,  "A 
more  elegant  and  more  simpler  method."  It  should  be,  "A  simpler  and  more  ele- 
gant metliod,"  or,  "  A  more  simple  and  elegant  method." 

"A  tobacco-seed  is  the  least  of  any  other  seed — of  all  other  seeds — of  any  seed 
— ^less  than  any  seed  :"  "There  is  no  seed  so  small  as  a  tobacco-seed."  That  is,  a 
tobacco -seed  is  a  seed  of  some  other  kind  of  seed,  or  it  is  smaller  than  itself— ab- 
surdities. "  The  weakest  of  the  two."  That  is,  one  is  weaker  than  the  other ; 
therefore  say,  "  The  weaker  of  the  two." 

"An  old  pair  of  shoes."  The  meaning  is  not  that  the  pair  is  old,  but  that  the 
shoes  are  old;  hence  say,  "A  pair  of  old  shoes."  There  are  some  ambiguities  in 
regard  to  adjectives,  that  must  be  left  to  the  discernment  of  common  sense,  for 
they  can  not  be  well  avoided  unless  we  use  the  hyphen  ;  and  this  mark  would  gen- 
erally make  the  expressions  too  uncouth.  Said  a  gentleman  to  a  lady,  "  That  is  a 
beautiful  eh:\\d'»  cap;"  and  she  replied,  "If  it  is  not  bought  for  an  ugly  one." 
'  Large  Bread  Bakery."  Is  the  bread  large,  or  the  bakery  f  "  Cincinnati  Boys' 
School."  A  critical  wag  said,  that  only  the  boys  beloiigiug  to  Cincinnati  could  at- 
tend the  school.  "  A  child's  beautiful  cap,"  seems  affected,  and  ma^  imply  that 
every  child  has  also  an  ugly  cap:  though  we  must  say,  "  A  child's  black  cap. 
When  I  say,  ''Five  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty-five  dollars,"  each  small  nu- 
meral relates  to  the  larger  next  to  it,  and  the  entire  phrase  to  the  noun  ;  and  when 
I  say,  "  That  distinguished  venerable  old  man,"  each  adjective  modifies  all  that 
follows  it :  hence  an  adjective  may  relate  either  to  the  next  word  or  to  the  next 
two  or  more  words.  "  The  American  Artificial  Teeth  Company."  And  even,  1 
have  just  bought  a  fine  suit  of  clothes,"  is  perhaps  allowable  ;  for  fine  may  relate 
10  the  Jit,  correspondence,  and  chth.     "A  fine  collection  of  gems."— Jfocawjay. 

When  such  words  as  first  and  last  are  used  with  plural  numerals,  the  sense 

8 


184  VERBS. 

usually  requires  them  before  the  plurals;  as,  "The  firat  three,"  "The  last  four;" 
not,  "The  three  first,"  "  The  four  last."  So.  "  Tlie  first  six  men,"  "  The  last 
two  men,"  "  The  last  ten  rows,"  even  if  there  should  not  be  enough  for  twice  the 
number,  or  for  "A  last  six,"  "A  first  two,"  "A  first  ten."  But  usage,  or  the 
state  or  things,  may  sometimes  allow  a  different  arrangement ;  for  instance,  it 
would  certainly  be  correct  to  say,  *'  The  four  first  trees  of  the  four  rows."  If  "  The 
first  six  French  kings,"  should  suggest  the  idea  of  six  kings  ruling  at  once,  I  would 
rather  say,  "  The  six  first  French  kings  ;"  but,  if  this  phrase  should  express  tlio 
meaning  no  better  than  the  other,  I  would  prefer  the  other.  We  usually  say, 
"  For  tlie  next  five  years  "  "  The  last  two  out  of  three,"  "The  best  six  out  of 
eleven;"  and  not,  "  For  the  five  next  years,"  "  The  two  last,"  &o.  But  we  say, 
"  The  two  hindmost  wheels ;"  for  one  is  as  far  back  as  the  other.  "  The  two  fore- 
most horses,"  is  also  correct.  We  would  hardly  say,  "  The  laziest  two  boys,"  but, 
"  The  two  laziest  boys  ;"  for  the  former  phrase  would  suggest  that  they  are  in  some 
way  united  as  a  pair,  which  is  not  our  meaning. 

In  favor  of  "Tne  first  two — three — five,"  "  The  last  four — six,"  &c.,  may  be 
urged — 1.  Analogy:  we  always  say,  in  speaking  of  large  numbers,  "The  "first 
twenty — last  twenty,"  &c. ;  not,  "The  twenty  first — thirty  last;"  we  ako  say, 
"  The  next  five."  2.  Aath'jrity ;  grammarians,  and  good  writers  generally,  give 
this  form  the  preference.  Against :  The  expressions  may  suggest  that  the  entire 
number  is  divided  into  at  least  two  such  groups,  which  may  be  neither  true  rwr 
possible :  as,  "  The  first  four  acts  of  the  play."  (The  whole  play  having  but  five 
acta.)  In  favor  of  "  The  two  first,"  "  The  last  four,"  &c.,  may  be  ur^ed — 1.  That 
they  avoid  the  grouping  ;  2.  That  many  good  writers  not  unfrequently  use  them. 
Against :  That  the  phraseology  is  apt  to  suggest,  that  there  can  be  niore  firsts  or 
lasts  than  one  when  this  is  not  strictly  true.  In  short,  all  other  things  being  equal, 
I  should  prefer  the  first  form  given  above ;  but,  if  the  latter  would  express  my 
meaning  better,  I  should  not  hesitate  to  use  it.  The  German  language,  I  believe, 
favors  the  Litter  form. 

Adjectives  may  either  precede  or  follow  the  substantives,  but  their  position  has 
Bometimes  a  great  influence  on  the  energy  of  the  sentence ;  as,  '■'■Excellent  as  the 
present  version  of  the  Bible  is,  still  we  believe,"  &c.  ^^  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Eplie- 
sians."  '•^BrigM  fiashed  the  clouds,  and  loud  the  thunder  rolled."  '■'•Young  s!ie 
was,  and  ritfA,  and  beautiful  '■'-Sitblirne  on  radiant  spheres  he  trod."  "  It  was  a 
clear  morning,  bright  and  balmy^  "  So  that  our  whole  company,  young  and  old, 
rotten  audi  sound,  did  not  amount  to  more  than  fifty  men."  "  The  scattered  clouds 
twmuUuous  rove."  "The  interminable  sky  subllmer  swells."  "Goodness  in- 
finite.^'' "  Woe  unutterable.^^  "  She  was  a  woman  heartless,  talented,  and  ambi- 
tious.^^ ^'■Saaadous  in  policy  and  prompt  in  action,  his  whole  life  was  a  brilliant 
career."  Observe  that  the  adjective,  preceded  by  the  and  not  followed  by  a 
noun,  sometimes  denotes  persons,  and  sometimes  the  abstract  quality  ;  as,  "  The 
humorous  may  please  us  more  than  the  witty.-''  This  may  mean,  "  The  humorous 
man,  or  humorous  people  in  general,  may  please,"  &c. ;  or,  "  Humor  may  please 
us  better  than  wit."      ^         «*  >       j  i-         >  ,      j  j  v 

_  An  adjective  immediately  preceding  two  or  more  nouns  in  thie  same  construc- 
tion, is  usually  understood  as  qualifyuig  them  all;  hence,  "  His  luncheon  was  a 
small  biscmt  and  cheese,"  was  perhaps  meant  for,  "  His  luncheon  was  cheese  and 
a  small  biscuit." 

8.  VERBS. 

?  238.  A  verto  is  a  word  used  to  affirm  something  of  a 
subject.     ♦ 

■  239.  The  verb  is  the  part  of  speech  whose  chief  use  is,  to  make  the 
predjoates  of  propositions.  Almost  every  verb  denotes  some  kind  of  ac- 
tion or  state.  And  affirmations,  with  grammarians,  mean  all  kinds  of 
assertions ;  also  commands  and  questions. 

t>,«'?!!;7'r^!lfi*'?'^®  ''''1  "J'  *^*^  «*'•««*•"  "  The  thunder  rolls^'  "  Sweet  llooms 
toe  rose. ;  Sodom  and  ^omorrah  were  destroyed  by  fire  from  heaven."  '*  L'roy 
wu,  bat  M  no  more."    "  Fairies  are  beings  of  the  fancy."     "  The  clouds  iMrtina. 


VERBS. CLASSES.  166 

the  moon  shone  through."  "  Some  are  horn  to  creepy  '*  I  mw  her  weeping?"*  "  He 
did  not  order  the  carnage  to  he  sent  away."  *'  I  said,  Go  ;  and  he  went.''''  "  Who 
would  not  have  resisted^  if  he  had  heen  thus  attacked  f 

The  essential  or  chief  .characteristic  of  the  verb  is,  to  predicate,  or  to  aay  some- 
thing of  something ;  and  hence  the  Germans  call  it  the  say-word. 

.  240.  The  verb  &e,  then,  when  used  aflfirmatively,  to  bind  together  a  subject 
and  an  attribute,  must  be  the  piorest  and  greatest  or  fundamental  verb.  If  I 
say,  "God  love,"  "The  world  beautiful,"  the  words  are  lifeless;  but  the  mo- 
ment is  is  inserted,  it  indicates  at  once  the  presence  of  an  observing  and  rational 
being,  animates  the  lifeless  parts,  and  a  thought,  judgment,  or  truth,  is  born  1 
"  God  is  love."     "  The  world  is  beautiful." 

?  241.  The  verb  be,  when  used  to  bind  together  the  subject  and 
its  attribute  into  a  proposition,  is  called  the  copula. 

As  we  can  not  well  conceive  an  abstract  relation  between  two  objects,  without 
aiding  to  it  something  else  belonging  to  them,  or  forraiii<|  a  complex  idea,  most 
verbs  comprise  the  sense  of  the  verb  he,  and  something  additional,  that  is,  some 
kind  of  actum  or  state. 

When  a  verb  is  actually  used  to  express  affirmation,  it  is  called  a, finite  verb; 
but  there  are  two  forms  of  the  verb  which  do  not  express  atTirmations,  and  are 
called  the  participle  and  the  infinitive.  For  we  may  also  conceive  an  act  or  state 
abstractly,  or  else  without  predicating  it.  A.nd  it  is  chiefly  by  means  of  these 
two  forms,  or  parts,  that  the  verb  passes  out  into  other  parts  of  speech;  that  is, 
not  only  retains,  to  some  extent,  the  nature  of  a  verb,  but  also  participates  that 
of  an  adjective,  an  adverb,  or  a  noun. 

?  242.  The  participle  is  generally  an  inflected  form  of  the 
verb,  construed  like  an  adjective,  and  expressing  no  affirmation. 

Ex. — "  I  saw  the  oak  wnrrE  with  snow ;"  "I  saw  the  oak  riven  by  a  thunder- 
bolt."    "  The  grass  is  OBEEN  ;""  The  grass  is  p-roziJiw^." 

?  243.  The  iaifinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  beginning  gen- 
erally with  to,  and  expressing  no  affirmation. 

Ex.—"  The  farm  is  to  he  sold:''  "  The  jailor  is  supposed  to  have  let  the  prisoner 
[to] 


Classes. 

Verbs  are  classified,  according  to  their  form,  and  their  construction  in  sen- 
tences,— 

?  Into  regular  and  irregular. 

?  Into  transitive  and  intransitive ;  and  the  transitive  verbs  are 

often  used  as  passive,  and  some  of  the  intransitive  are  always  neuter. 

?  244.  A  reg^nlar  verb  takes  the  ending  ed  to  form  its  pre- 
terit and  its  perfect  participle. 

Ex. — "  Plant,  planted,  planted  ;  carry,  carried,  carried;  rebel,  rebelled,  rehMed. 

?  245.  An  irregular  verb  does  not  take  the  ending  ed,  to 
form  its  preterit  and  its  perfect  participle.       See  pp.  13-16. 

Ex. — "Sweep,  swept,  swept;  cling,  clung,  clung ;  cut,  cui,  cut. 

?  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present,  or  the  simplest  form 
as  registered  in  a  dictionary  ;  the  preterit,  or  the  simplest  form  of  the  past 
indicative;  and  tho  perfect  participle^  or  the  form  that  will  make  sense 


166  VERBS. CLASSES. 

with  the  word  having  or  hdng  before  it.  To  these  may  be  added  the 
present  participle,  which,  as  it  ends  always  in  ing^  Is  too  well  known  to 
need  mentioning. 

?  By  means  of  these  parts  and  the  auxiliary  verbs,  all  the  other 
parts  of  verbs  are  formed., 

The  present,  if  traced  back  in  dictionaries,  is  the  present  infinitive  or  the  present  indica- 
tive form ;  but  it  would  perhaps  be  as  well  to  consider  it  the  present  imperative. 

The  irregular  verbs  are  the  oldest,  and  perhaps  the  heart  of  the  language. 

Regular  verbs  never  become  irregular,  except  that  ed  is  sometimes  shortened 
into  t 

Irregular  verbs  sometimes  become  regular. 

All  newly  made  verbs  brought  into  the  language,  assume  the  regular  ending. 

?  240.  A  prefix,  joined  to  a  verb,  does  not  change  the  form  of  the 
principal  parts. 

Ex. — '■^  Qo,  undergo,  underwent,  undergone;  give,  misgive,  forgive;  do,  undo; 
hold,  withhold;  act,  counteract;  say,  gainsay.    Exception:  Welcome. 


?  247.  A  transitive  verb  has  an  object,  or  requires  one  to 
complete  the  sense. 

Ex. — '*  The  lightning  s^?vic^  the  OAK."  ""WnoMC^i^?  you  seef''  "  The  garden 
A<M  FLOWERS."  "I  knew  HIM  well,  and  every  truant  knew.''''  '"''Avoid  diving  of- 
FEX3E."  "  I  dislike  TO  DO  it."  "  He  cominanded  \  the  soldier  to  be  brought."  "  I 
know  \  how  deeply  liberty  is  rooted  in  the  hearts  of  these  people." 

?  248.  A  passive  verb  is  a  transitive  verb  so  used  that  it  repre- 
sents its  subject  as  acted  upon,*  or  has  the  object  for  its  subject. 

Ex, — "  James  killed  a  snake;  "A  snake  was  killed  by  James."  '*  I  will  plant 
a  cedar  over  her  grave  ;"  "A  cedar  shall  he  planted  over  her  grave." 

?  249.  An  intransitive  verb  does  not  require  an  object  to  com- 
plete the  sense. 

Ex. — "Birds ^/^y."  "  Rosea  bloom.''''  "  Martha  learns  fast."  '■^Acquire  m  youth, 
that  you  may  enjoy  in  age."     "  Gamblers  cheat.'''' 

?  250.  A  neuter  verb  is  an  intransitive  verb  that  does  not  im- 
ply action  or  exertion. 

Ex.— "The  ocean  is  deep."  "  The  hook  lies  on  the  table."  "  Here  sleep  the 
brave."  Since  existence  is  a  more  general  idea  than  action  or  motion,  the  neuter 
verbs,  though  few  in  number,  range  farther  than  all  the  active  verbs. 

?  251.  The  same  word  is  sometimes  used  as  a  transitive,  and 

Bometimes  as  an  intransitive,  verb. 

„    Ex.— "The  prince  succeeds  the  king;'''  "  In  every  undertaking  lae  succeeds.'''' 
"  To  SET  trees  in  a  row ;"  "  The  sun  «e^." 

?  252.  A  verb  usually  transitive,  sometimes  becomes  intransitive. 
The  intention,  in  such  cases,  is  to  ascribe  simply  a  certain  act  or 
state,  and  to  leave  the  object  desiornedly  unknown  or  indefinite  :  the 
mind  dwells  upon  the  act,  rather  than  upon  the  object  afi'ected  by  it. 
,,  _  f  ^•~!'.^^®  *'*'^  well."  "  He  studies  in  the  morning,  and  rides  in  the  evening." 
1  keep  hw  house,  and  I  wash,  wring,  brew,  bake,  scour,  dress  meat,  and  make  the 
beds,  and  do  all  my»e\V'— Shakespeare. 

?  253.  A  verb  usually  intransitive,  sometimes  becomes  transitive. 


VERBS. PROPERTIES. VOICES.  167 

This  occurs,  when  the  verb  is  used  in  a  causative  sense ;  when  the 

object  is  like  the  verb  in  meaning ;  and  in  certain  poetic  expressions. 

Ex. — "  To  march  armies ;"  i.  e.,  to  cause  them  to  march.  '■'•To  live  a  righteous 
life."  "2b  ^ie  a  miserable  death."  "2'o /^^ow  a  louder  blast."  "2b  fco^  daggers." 
(See  also  Kule  VI.)  '■'■^y^^  hoked  love — looked  pity."  "Death  grinned  a  gliastlv 
smile."  '•'•  T1\\Q  Yightmngi  fl'xshed  a  brighter  curve."  "  The  streams  raw- nectar." 
lu  many  such  instances,  the  verb  shows  how  the  object  is  expressed  or  made ; 
or  else  the  object  cliaracterizes  the  verb. 

?  From  some  intransitive  verbs  are  derived  corresponding  transi- 
tive verbs. 

Ex. — Lie,  lciy;^fL  set,  seat ;  fall, /eZ^/  rise,  raise;  drink,  drench. 

?  254.  Sometimes  the  object  is  combined  with  the  verb  so  closely 
as  to  make  in  sense  almost  a  part  of  it ;  and  sometimes  the  object  is 
identical  with  the  subject,  merely  completes  the  sense,  and  implies 
no  transfer  of  the  act. 

Ex. — "To  take  care  of;  to  lose  sight  of;  to  lay  hold  of."  "To  bestir  oneself; 
to  bethink  oneself ;  to  conduct  oneself  well ;  to  feign  oneself  sick  •  to  laugh  oneself 
hoarse ;"     "He  slept  himself  weary  ;"  "He  drank  /wwweZ/dead  drunk." 


Properties. 

?    Verbs    have    voices,    moods,    teiise«,    persons,     and 
Eiimibers. 

Voices,  in  general,  relate  to  action  ;  moods,  to  reality  ;  tense.9,  to  time ;  and  per- 
sons and  numbers  show  the  nominative,  wherever  in  the  sentence  it  may  be. 


Voices. 

The  voices  are  rather  absorbed  in  the  foregoing  classification  of  verbs ;  yet,  considering  the  im 
portance  of  the  subject,  and  its  treatment  in  the  grammars  of  other  languages,  I  have  retained  them. 

?  The  voices  are  two  modes  of  expressing  transitive  verbs. 

?  They  are  called  the  active  voice  and  the  passive. 

?  255.  The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting,  or 
the  verb  as  relating  to  an  object. 

Ex.— "The  laborers  gather  corn."  "  The  frost  hroke  the  pitcher."  "  The  girls 
are  learning  their  lessons."  "John  resembles  his  father."  "The  house  Tuts  a 
portico." 

?  256.  The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted  upon, 
or  the  verb  as  having  the  object  for  its  subject. 

Ex.—"  The  pitcher  was  broken:'  "  Many  hogs  are  driven  to  market."  "  The 
bridge  is  building:^     '■'■To  be  ridiculed  is  unjileasant." 

?  257.  Transitive  verbs  may  sometimes  be  used  as  passive  verbs, 
even  in  the  active  form.  Such  verbs  often  denote,  not  so  much  the 
receiving  of  the  act,  as  the  capacity  to  receive  it  in  a  certain  way. 

Ex.—"  This  timber  saws  well."  "  Sycamore  splits  badly."  "  This  field  pl/yugh» 
well."       "  Linen  wears  belter  than   cotton."       "  Your  poem  reads  smoothlv." 

bel."     "  I  could  easily  see  what 


Wheat  seZ^s — is  selling — ia  sold  for  a  dollar  a  bushel. 
was  doing  on  the  other  side  of  the  river."     "Virgil  describes  some  spirits  as 
bleaching  in  the  winds,  others  as  cleansing  under  great  falls  of  water,  and  others  as 
P'urging  in  fire,  to  recover  tlie  primitive  beauty  and  purity  of  their  nature." — Ad- 


168  VERBS. MOODS. 

dison.  "  Be  assured  he  has  an  ax  to  gnndy  "  There  is  no  work  to  doy  Such 
iufinitive  expressions,  however,  may  be  considered  elliptical ;  as,  "  There  is  no 
work  [for  us]  to  do.'''' 

?  258.  The  present  participle,  when  not  combined  with  any 
other  verbal  form,  is  generally  active ;  and  the  perfect  participle^ 
passive. 

Ex.—"  Close  beside  her,  faintly  moaning,  fair  and  young,  a  soldier  lay, 

Torn  with  shot,  and  pierced  with  lances,  bleeding  slow  his  life  awav." 

Whittle^. 


tl 


m  a  passive 
form.     This  is  a  French  idiom  ;  and  the  verbs  are  ^t  passive. 

Ex. — "He  vi  fallen.''''  "She  is  gone.''^  "The  melancholy  days  are  come.'' 
Equivalent  to  has  fallen,  Ms  gone,  have  come  ;  but,  "  John  is  struck,'''  is  not  the 
same  as,  "  John  his  struck.''''  The  passive  form  seems  to  ditfer  from  the  active,  by 
an  elegant  shade  of  meaning  :  in  the  former,  the  mind  dwells  rather  on  the  state 
of  things  after  the  act ;  in  the  latter,  on  the  act  itself. 

?  260.  A  few  intransitive  verbs  may  be  made  passive,  when  their 
meaning  is  combined  with  a  following  preposition  or  other  word.  Such 
a  verb  with  the  modification  may  be  termed  a  compound  passive  verb. 

^  Ex. — "  Col.  Butler  was  accordingly  written  to,  and  ordered  to  hasten  forward 
with  the  volunteers." — Irving.  '•'■Had  Monmouth  really  heen  sent  for  to  tlia 
Hague?" — Macaulay.  "An  honest  man  wiU  be  well  thought  of,  and  looked  up  to." 
"If  you  wear  such  a  coat,  you  w'bll  he  laughed  af'^^ridiculed.  "  He  was  smiled  on 
"hy  fortune" ^/auoretZ.  "  He  was  justly  clealt  with'^=treated.  "  My  claim  was  lost 
sight  of."  The  modification  is  so  closely  combined  in  sense  with  the  verb,  that  it 
seems  to  make  a  part  of  it. 

?  261.  Hence  we  see  that  the  object  of  the  active  verb,  sometimes 
that  of  the  preposition,  is  made  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb. 

_  Bat  when  the  object  of  the  preposition  or  that  of  the  infinitive  is  made  the  sub- 
ject, the  expression  is  sometimes  too  inelegant  to  bo  allowed.  "  Weights  and  mea- 
sures were  now  attempted  to  be  established."— Carlyle. 

.  26^.  Transitive  verbs  may  be  used,  at  pleasure,  either  actively  or  passively. 
By  having  both  forms,  language  is  enriched  in  variety  of  expression.  The  act- 
ive voice,  however,  sets  forth  chiefly  the  doer  with  the  kind  of  action  performed 
by  him;  the  passive  voice,  the  object  with  the  kind  of  action  affecting  it,  an  I 
also  enables  us  to  avoid  changing  the  subject.  The  active  can  be  used  without 
tlie  object,  the  passive  without  the  agent ;  each  of  which  it  is  sometimes  not 
possible,  not  important,  or  not  desirable,  to  mention. 

Ex.— "Washington  defended  ovlv  country;"  "Oar  oo0>rrRY  wis  defended  bv 
Washington^  '' Bascom  preached  in  Kentucky,  and  Campbell  d'isouted  in  Vir- 
ginia f  (Who  did  ?  and  did  what ?)  "  Tiie  work  was  done,  notwithsUmding  he 
refused  U)  touch  it. '  "  I  went  to  the  river,  was  ferried  over,  and  saw  the  proces- 
sion."    "My  MOTIVES  were  slandered."     "The  ship  was  stranded." 


moods. 

?  The  mood**  are  certam    modes    of   expressino-    the  verb    in 
regard  to  its  subject.  ° 

?  There  are  five  moods ;  the  indicative,  the  subjunctive,  the  wo. 
tenttal,  the  imperative^  and  the  infinitive. 


,  VERBS. MOODS.  Iid9 

?  263.  The  indicative  mood  affirms  something  as  an  actual 
occurrence  or  fact. 

Ex. — "  Columbus  discovered  America."  "  The  bank  Ms  failed.''^  "  The  tree3 
are  budding:''  "  The  peaches  will  he  ripe."  "  If  the  bank  Tias  failed:''  "  If  the 
I)eaohes  shall  he  ripe."  '■'■Are  you  sick  V  "  Who  never  fasts^  no  banquet  e'er  e/i- 
joys:^     "  Then,  ijr  thou  faWst,  thou  falVst  a  blessed  martyr." 

A  proposition,  having?  a  verb  in  the  indicative  mood,  may  be  declarative^  inter- 
rogative^ or  negative.  It  may  also  express  a  condition  or  an  inference  ;  for  what  is 
not  known  as  being  actually  in  existence,  may  nevertheless  be  assumed  as  matter 
of  fact. 


?  264.  The  ^fojunctive  mood  affirms  something  as  a  future 
contingency,  or  as  a  mere  supposition,  wish,  or  conclusion.    See  p.  175, 

Ex. — "If  he  be  studious,  he  will  excel."  "  If  he  were  studious,  lie  would  ex- 
cel." "If  he  AaJ  Je6»  studious,  he  would  have  excelled."  "If  you  be  rich" — 
a  condition  not  improbable.  "  If  ^ou  were  rich" — a  supposition  without  fact.  "  0, 
that  you  were  rich" — a  mere  ■wbsh.  "  Though  he  deceive  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in 
him.''  It  is  not  certain  that  he  will  deceive  me.  "  Till  the  owner  present  himself, 
I  will  keep  it."  I  do  not  think  it  certain  that  he  will.  "  Except  ye  be  horn  again, 
ye  can  not  enter  the  kingdom  of  heaven."  Ye  may  be  born  again,  or  ye  may  not. 
"  Beware,  lest  thou  be  led  into  temptation."  There  is  not  a  certainty,  yet  a  liabil- 
ity. So,  "See  that  no  one  go  astray — he  forgotten,.''''  "  If  a  common  bottle  were 
filled  with  water,  and  plu?iged  under  the  oil  until  it  reached  ....  it  would  remain," 
&c. — Dr.  Arnot.  It  may  be  done,  or  it  may  not ;  the  actual  occurrence  is  not  de- 
nied. "  The  wicked  sometimes  conduct  themselves  in  such  a  manner  as  if  they 
ei^ected  no  punishment  for  their  sins." — Addison.  They  may  expect  it,  or  they 
may  not ;  the  author  does  not  positively  deny  that  they  do.  "  If  all  hnew  their 
duty,  and  appreciated  their  responsibilities,  there  would  be  less  calamity  in  the 
world." — Dr.  Shannon.  The  author  denies  that  they  do.  "  0,  that  I  were  as  when 
my  mother  pressed  me  to  her  bosom,  and  sung  the  warlike  deeds  of  the  Mo- 
hawks." But  I  am  not.  '■'■Had  I  heard  of  the  aif.iir  sooner,  this  accident  had  not 
happened:''  But  I  did  not,  and  it  happened.  "  I  had  rather  pay  [infinitive]  the 
debt  at  once,  than  be  his  security."  An  ideal  view  :  it  is  not  said  that  I  do  pay. 
("  I  had  [suhjunctive]  rather  [to]  have  lost  [infinitive]  my  money,  than  my  manu- 
script," is  not  elegant  English,  though  perhaps  hardly  incorrect.)  "  Were  it  so, 
I  would  consent,"  A  mere  supposition.  "  It  were  useless,"  &c.  "It  had  been  use- 
less," (fee.  A  mere  conclusion.  "  If  it  rains,''''  is  indicative,  and  implies  that  the 
speaker  does  not  know  whether  it  is  nmo  actually  raining  or  not.     "If  it  mi»,"  is 


subjunctive,  referring  to  a  present  act  denied,  and  implies  that  the  speaker  is  merely 
supposing  a  case.  "If  this  is  treason,  make  the  most  of  it,"  is  indicative,  and  de- 
cides the  matter  now,  or  supposes  it  decided.  "  If  tliis  be  treason,  make  the  most  of 
it,"  is  subjunctive,  and  refers  the  matter  io  future  decision  or  judicial  investigation. 

?  The  subjunctive  mood  has  three  tenses:  the  present,  the  past  or 
aorist  (=indefimte),  and  the  pluperfect;  generally  equivalent  in  lime  to  a 
future,  a  present,  and  a  past  tense, — tenses  sufficient,  yet  needed,  for  all 
the  purposes  of  this  mood.       See  pp.  20  and  26. 

?  It  remains  almost  entirely  unchanged  throughout  the  same  tense,  and  shows 
its  peculiarity  of  form  chiefly  in  the  verb  he.       See  p.  26. 

265.  In  its  form,  it  is  most  hke  the  indicative  mood;  in  sense,  more  like  the 
potential,  with  which  it  is  also  most  frequently  associated,  and  inio  which  it  may 
often  be  converted.       See  above,  also  pp.  25-26. 

When  a  verb  in  this  mood  refers  to  past  or  present  time,  it  generally,  but  not 
always,  implies  a  denial  of  the  fact ;  when  to  future  time,  that  the  fact  is  un- 
certain or  contingent.       See  the  examples  above. 


J70  VERBS. MOODS. 

?  266.  To  a  verb  in  this  mood,  some  auxiliary  verb — shall,  will,  may, 
should— may  in  most  instances  be  understood,  without  materially  varying 
ihe  sense;  provided  the  auxiliary  be  conceived  as  expressing  time  or  con- 
tingence,  and  not  resolution,  necessity,  obligation,  &c. 

Ex.—"  If  he  Ic  at  home,  I  shall  go  to  see  him"=If  he  shall  be  at  home,  &c. 
^^  If  thon  ever  return,  thou  shouldst  be  thankful"  =If  thou  shovldst  ever  retvrn 
&c.  "Beware  that  thou  come  not  to  poverty;"  *.  e.,  that  thou  mayst  not  come  to 
poverty. 

?  267  A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  generally  has,  or  may  have,  if, 
though,  unless,  except,  whether,  that,  till,  or  some  equivalent  word  before 
it.  The  clause  perhaps  always  implies  another,  expressed  or  understood  ; 
and  hence  the  mood  is  called  subjunctive,  which  means^yomecZ  to. 

It  should  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  these  preceding  •words  produce  the  mood,  or 
change  the  form  of  the  verb.  It  is  rather  the  state  of  mind,  under  which  the  verb  is  set 
forth,  that  produces  the  mood,  and  requires  or  allows  the  conditional  word  before  it. 


?  268.  The  potential  mood  affirms  merely  the  power,  liberty, 
liability,  necessity,  will,  duty,  or  some  other  relation  of  the  subject 
to  the  act  or  state. 

Ex. — "  It  may  rain."  "  You  can  go — could  go — must  go — should  go — would  go — 
mioht  go.''''  "  I  would  go  with  you,  if  1  could  spare  the  time."  "  When  John  Gilpin 
ri^es  again,  rnay  1  le  there  to  see." 

When  an  act  or  state  is  expressed  in  this  mood,  it  may  take  place,  or  not.  It  is 
not  the  business  of  the  mood  to  show  whether  it  does  or  not,  but  merely  what  re- 
lation the  subject  bears  to  it. 

?  269.  To  express  this  mood,  we  combine  with  the  verb — the  infinitive 
form  without  the  sign  to — the  word  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would, 
or  should,  and  sometimes  perhaps  shall  in  the  sense  of  mztst,  or  will  in 
the  sense  of  would  or  to  be  willing. 

This  mood  is,  in  fact,  composite;  its  forms  being  composed  of  indicative  and  infinitive, 
of  subjunctive  and  infinitive,  or  of  imperative  and  infinitive,  elements.  Tlie  sign  to  of  the 
infinitive  being  omitted  in  combination.  Indie.  +  injin. :  "I  knew  he  cordd  |  learn  it;" 
"He  would  I  go  then ;"  "  We  must  |  endure  it ;"  "  I  can  |  pay  him."  Subjunc.  -\-  infin. : 
"She  could  \  King  if  she  would;''   "I  might  |  learn  the  lesson;"  "I  should  \  hardly  believe 

?'ou  even  then  ;"  "  I  might  \  have  written  to  him,  had  I  known  it ;"  "  Study,  that  you  muy  | 
earn.'"  Imper.  -\-  infin. :  "i/ay  you  |  prosper  ;"  '■'May  it  |  please  your  honors."  When  the 
auxiliary  element  adheres  to  the  time  usually  given  to  its  tense,  it  is  indicative  ;  but  when 
it  does  not,  or,  like  subjunlives,  moves  forward  in  time,  or  becomes  indefinite  in  time,  it  is 
tubjunctive. 

?  270.  The  imperative  mood  expresses  command,  exhorta- 
tioM,  entreaty,  or  permission. 

Ex.—"  Charge,  Chester,  charge!'^  "Do  nothing  that  your  heart  tells  you  is 
wrong."    "i>o  come  to  see  us."     "Depart  in  peace." 

Tho  act  or  state  may  or  may  not  take  place.  If  it  takes  place,  it  must  be 
after  the  command  itself,  which  is  always  expressed  in  present  time,  or  in  what 
is  considered  so  at  the  time  referred  to.  As  we  always  speak  to  some  person 
or  thing  when  wo  eommund,  this  mood  has  the  second  person  only;  and  the 
subject  of  the  verb  is  thou,  you,  or  ye,  which  is  nearly  always  understood.  But 
Boinetimua  this  mood  is  used  in  other  persons  or  in  the  perfect  tense. 
.,_E''-— "-/^^^f,  done  tliy  charms,  thou  hateful,  withered  hare.''— Shakespeare. 
"8onjebodyfu//myvvife."-i(i  "This  mortal  house  I'll  ruin,  Jo  Cuesar  what  he 
can.  —Id.  '  iMugh  tho^<e  who  can,  weep  those  who  may.'''— Scott.  "  '  Now  tread 
we  a  meiujure  I'  suid  young  Lochinvar."— /tZ.  (Now  let  us  tread,  etc.)  "  Fall  ho 
that  must,  beneatli  his  rival's  arms."— Pojoe.  "  Whoever  comes  this  way— hehnld 
and  tremble.  —FoUok.  " Be '\i  iWxa  d&y  enacted.""  "Be  \t&o:'— Webster.  "PerJ-^h 
my  name,  and  penah  my  memory,  provided  Switzerland  may  be  frae."— Jell. 


VERBS. TEN3ES.  l7l 

"  Kuin  seize  thee,  ruthless  khig ;  confusion  on  thy  banners  waiV — Gray.  Whether 
such  verbs  as  some  of  the  hist  should  be  parsed  as  imperative,  or  as  potential  having 
may  understood,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  decide.  Perhaps  it  is  best  to  parse  them 
as  iMPEKATivEs  expressing  a  mingled  wish  and  command.  The  speaker  conmiands  in 
what  he  proposes  to  bear  a  part  himself;  or  he  commands,  so  far  as  he  can,  what 
is  absent,  inanimate,  unknown  to  him,  or  not  under  his  absolute  control.  The  ex- 
pressions are  all  rather  poetical  or  rhetorical. 

?  271.  The  imperative  mood  is  sometimes  used  when  there  is  but  a 
slight  or  no  reference  to  a  person  addressed,  to  express  more  modestly 
the  intention  or  will  of  the  speaker. 

Ex. — God  said,  ^'■Let  there  be  light."    '■^ Allow  me  to  congratulate  you." 

?  272.  The  iiifiiiitive  mood  expresses  the  act  or  state  with- 
out afRrrning  it.     It  comprises  the  participle  and  the  infinitive. 

Ex. — To  slay ;  to  have  slain ;  to  be  slain ;  to  have  been  slain.  Slaying  ;  having 
slain;  being  slain;  having  been  slain.  '''■Having  spoken^  he  arose."  "He  arose 
speaking.''''     "He  arose  to  speah."     "The  deer,  having  seen  me,  tried  to  escape.''^ 

"  The  infinitive  mode  so  called  is  the  crude-form  of  the  verb.  It  is  the  verb  di- 
vested of  all  modality.  It  is  no  mode  at  all." — /.  W.  Gibbs.  Again,  "  The  infini- 
tive and  participle  have  no  claim  to  be  considered  as  modes.  They  are  particip- 
ials." — la.  And,  "Under  the  general  name  of  participial  we  include  the  parti- 
ciples, the  infinitive  mode,  the  gerund,  and  the  supine." — Id. 

The  following  reasons  why  I  have  classed  participles  and  infinitives  together,  must 
suffice :  1.  They  are  both  without  affirmation.  2.  They  are  similarly  combined  with  the 
auxiliary  verbs  to  form  the  compound  tenses.  3.  They  may  both  be  used  as  substantives^ 
4.  They  are  sometimes  interchangeable.  5.  They  both  express  time  relatively,  and  not,  like 
finite  verbs,  absolutely.  6.  The  infinitive  sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  a  future  participle. 
7.  Other  languages  sometimes  use  one  form  where  we  would  use  the  other.  8.  The  remarks 
of  eminent  grammarians  and  scholars,  on  the  subject.  See  Kuhner,  Whately,  Anthon, 
Becker. 

1  273.  Almost  the  same  sense  may  sometimes  be  expressed  by  a  dif- 
ferent mood. 

Ex.—"  I  came  that  I  might  assist  yon— to  assist  you."  "Jfay  you  always  love 
virtue  ;"  "Do  always  love  virtue.''  "  You  will  not  hurt  him ?"  "  Do  not  hurt  him." 
Mild  imperatives.  "  It  would  be  useless  ;"  "  It  were  useless."  ^'■Deny  uspleasure, 
und  you  unfit  us  for  business ;"  '■'■If  you  deny  us,"  etc.    Emphatic  condition. 

Should  the  subjunctive  mood  ever  disappear  entirely  from  our  language,  then 
the  best  classification  of  moods  will  be  into  three ;  tlie  indicative^  the  imperative, 
and  the  infinitive. 

Tenses. 

?The  tenses  are  the  forms  and  meanings  of  the  verb  in  -regard 
to  time. 

?  There  are  six  tenses;  the  present,  the  past,  the  future,  the  per- 
fect, the  pluperfect,  and  the  future-perfect. 

Time  may  be  divided  into  present,  past,  and  future.  Present  time,  strictly 
speaking,  can  denote  but  a  iBoment  of  duration;  yet  longer  periods,  exteudmg 
into  both  the  future  and  the  past,  are  often  considered  present;  as  when  we  say, 
this  day,  this  week,  this  year,  this  century,  in  our  lifetime.  Past  time  begins  from 
the  present,  and  extends  back  as  far  as  our  thoughts  can  wander ;  /«/!wre  ^me  be- 
gins from  tlie  same  point,  and  goes  forward  to  a  similar  extent.  In  each  of  these 
periods,  an  act  may  be  considered  as  merely  occurring  or  continumg,  or  as  com^ 
pkted  or  ended,— thus  making  six  tenses.  To  each  period  belongs  also  a  sort  of 
future  tense,  expressed  by  about  and  the  infinitive,  and  sometimes  called  the  pen- 
fhrasHc  future ;  as,  "  I  was  about  to  studyf  But  the  following— to  he  read  bctl» 
down  und  across  the  page— may  be  more  intelligible  to  the  learner  :— 

8* 


172 


PBE8ENT.  PAST.  FUTUBE. 

I  write  I  ■wrote  I  shall  write 

I  have  written        *  I  had  written        _  I  shall  have  written 

I  am  about  to  write  I  was  about  to  write  I  shall  be  about  to  write 

I  am  writing  I  was  writing  I  shall  be  writing 

I  have  been  writing  I  had  been  writing  I  shall  have  been  writmg. 


It  seems  best  to  define  the  tenses  according  to  their  forma,  and  in  every  mood. 

t  274.  The  present  indicative  denotes  what  now  exists,  or 

is  going  on. 

Ex. — *'  This  is  a  warm  day."    "  The  grass  is  growing  in  the  meadow." 

?  What  is  now  habitual  or  customary. 

Ex. — "  He  chews  tobacco."    "  People  go  to  church  on  Sunday." 

?  Universal  truths. 

Ex. — "Heat  melts  snow."  ^^Yirtne  produces  happiness."  "Drunkards  sel- 
dom reform.^"* 

?  Past  or  future  transactions  with  greater  vividness  or  certainty. 

Ex. — "  The  combat  deepens.    On,  ye  brave  1"     "  Do  this,  and  thou  diest  /" 

?  Future  events,  in  connection  with  words  that  carry  the  scene 
into  future  time.     Generally  after  relatives,  xohen.,  as  soon  as,  &c. 

Ex.—"  When  he  comes,  I  will  go."     "  Catch  whatever  comes.^^ 
*     ?  The  actions  or  qualities  of  authors  as  observed  in  their  works 
now  existing. 

Ex. — "  Seneca  reasons  and  moralizes  well."     "  Milton  is  sublime." 

?  2*75.  The  present  subjunctive  implies  future  time. 

Ex. — "If  it  rain,  our  flowers  will  live."    Physical.     "If  this  be  true."    Mental. 

?  276.  The  present  potential  is  present  or  future  in  regard  to 
both  the  mood  and  the  act  or  state. 

Ex.—"  He  may  \  he  cominy.''''     "  I  can  \  pay  you  next  Christmas." 

?  277.  The  present  imperative  is  present  in  regard  to  the 
mood,  and  future  in  regard  to  the  act  or  state. 

Ex. — ^^Return  soon."  '■'■Pour  out  the  rich  juices  still  bright  with  the  sun." 
"I  said,  fi'w."  So  vivid  is  this  mood,  that  it  can  easily  and  readily  set  forth  a 
scene  as  present  in  any  period  of  time. 

?  278.  The  present  participle  denotes  continuance  of  the  act 
or  state,  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — "Before  us  lay  the  lake  glittering  in  the  sun." 

?  279.  The  present  infinitive  denotes  simply  the  act  or  state, 
or  as  present  or  future  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex.— "A  lesson  hard  to  learn:''  "  She  seems  to  sleep.'^  "  I  intended  to  say  less." 

?  280.  The  pa<%t  iiidieativc  denotes  simply  what  occurred  in 
past  time. 

Ex.—"  He  was  fishing  when  I  saw  him."    "  If  he  ever  was  there." 

?  What  was  habitual  or  customary. 
.    ^^-r- **  The  good  times,  when  the  farmer  entertained  the  traveler  without  pay." 


VERBS. —  TEXSES.  173 

?  281.  The  past  subjunctive  denote?  present  or  indefinite  time, 
seldom  past  or  future  ;  and  it  generally  denies  the  act  or  state. 

Ex.—"  If  I  were  rich,  I  would  give  freely."  "  He  ran  as  if  he  were  running  for 
life."     "  If  I  were  to  admit  tiie  pledge,  he  would  then  say,"  &c.     See  p.  20. 

?  282.  The  past  potential  may  be  present,  past,  or  future  in 
regard  to  both  the  mood  and  the  act  or  state.  It  presents  the  act 
or  state  as  real,  contingent,  or  denied. 

Ex.— "He  wovld  |  go:'   "  I  should  \  then  hvy  it."    "  If  I  could  \  luy  it,  I  would.'''' 

It  denotes  what  was  habitual  or  customary. 

Ex. — "  There  would  she  sit  and  weep  for  hours." 

When  this  tense  does  not  denote  past  time,  it  may  be  called  aorist,  wMcli  means 


?  283.  The  ffiitwre  tense  denotes  simply  what  will  take  place 
hereafter. 

Ex. — "  The  snow  will  melt.''''    "  I  shall  he  at  home  this  evening." 

What  will  be  habitual  or  customary. 

Ex. — "  You  will  then  leg.''''     "The  steer  and  lion  at  one  crib  shall  meet.'''' 


?  284.  The  perfect  indicative  represents  something  as  past, 
but  still  connected  with  present  time. 

Ex. — "  I  have  lost  my  knife."     "  They  have  been  married  twenty  years." 

a.  It  implies  that  the  doer,  or  what  the  subject  denotes,  yet  exists,  and 
that  the  act  or  state  may  be  repeated. 

Ex. — "  I  have  read  Virgil  many  times."  "  Gen.  Scott  has  gained  several  vic- 
tories." 

b.  That  the  act  or  state  (begun  in  the  past),  and  of  course  that  to  which 
it  belongs,  yet  exist. 

Ex. — "  This  HOUSE  has  stood  twelve  years."    "  Thus  has  jt  flowed  for  ages." 

c.  That  the  result  yet  exists,  though  the  actor  or  act  may  be  no  more. 

Ex. — "  Cicero  has  written  orations."  "  Washington  has  left  his  example  to  the 
world." 

This  tense  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  express  many  of  the  relations  wliicb 
past  things  have  to  preseiit  things.  It  shows  that  past  eVents,  without  any  thing 
intervening,  come  down  to  us  in  their  consequences,  causes,  or  circumstances.  It 
usually  implies  that  the  time  in  which  the  act  occurred  or  began,  and  the  present 
time,  with  perhaps  some  of  the  future,  are  viewed  as  one  unbroken  period. 
"  Many  who  have  been  saluted  with  the  huzzas  of  the  crowd  one  day,  have  received 
it-s  execrations  the  next;  and  many,  who,  by  the  popularity  of  their  own  tunes, 
?i'iiie  been  held  up  as  spotless  patriots,  have,  nevertheless,  appeared  on  the  histo- 
ri  m's  page,  when  truth  has  triumphed  over  delusion,  the  assa'^sins  of  liberty." — 
Mansjield.  That  is  to  say,  Things  "nave  always  been  so,  and  will  continue  to  be  so, 
while  human  nature  remains  what  it  is.  "And  where  the  Atlantic  rolls,  wide 
continents  have  bloomed.'''' — Bjfron.  That  is  to  say,  In  the  great  chain  of  events  ex- 
tending through  all  time,  this  remarkable  one  actually  occurred  ;  and  who  shall 
say  what  strange  things  may  yet  happen  ?  In  stead  of  taking  a  day,  a  year,  or  a 
lifetime,  as  present  time,  the  poet  grasps,  and  glances  over,  all  duration  as  one 
unbroken  period  in  which  he  speaks.  Or  the  sentences  may  imply  that  theso 
things  have  been  handed  down  historically  or  traditionally  to  even  the  present  time. 


174  VERBS. TENSES. 

?  285.  This  tense,  preceded  by  relatives,  when^  as  soon  as,  <fec., 
may  sometimes  express  future  events. 

Ex. — "  When  you  fiave  seen  Niagara  Falls,  write  to  me." 

?  The  perfect  imperative  commands  the  ending  of  something  begun. 

Ex.— "ifa»e  done  thy  charms."— .S'MA.  "Do"  =  Begin  and  do.  "fiare  done"  =  Make  an 
end  of  what  you  are  now  doing.    This  perfect  is  very  seldom  used. 

?  286.  The  perfect  potential  is  present  or  future  in  regard  to 
the  mood,  and  presents  the  act  or  state  as  relatively  past. 

Ex.—"  The  child  may  |  have  fallen  into  the  well."  "Then  he  may  \  have  gone 
ahead  of  you." 

?  287.  The  perfect  participle  and  the  compound  denote  the 
completion,  sometimes  the  continuance,  of  the  act  or  state,  at  the 
time  referred  to. 

Ex. — "  This  is  a  coat  made  by  the  machine."  "  He  lives  loved  by  all."  '■'■Being 
already  enlisted,  and  having  bought  my  outiit,  I  refused  to  turn  back." 

?  The  compound  participle  which  has  the  auxiUary  having,  is  generally 
equivalent  in  time  to  the  pluperfect,  the  perfect,  or  the  future-perfect  indicative. 

Ex.— "The  sun  having  risen,  we  departed"  =  When  the  sun_  had  risan,  we  departed. 
'■^Having  found  a  pleasant  home,  he  is  content  and  happy."  '•'•Having  succeeded  in  this  spec- 
ulation, you  will  then  of  course  venture  upon  a  greater." 

?  288.  The  perfect  infinitive  represents  the  act  or  state  as  past 
at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — "My  business  shall  appear  to  have  leen  well  conducted.'''' 


?  289.  The  plBif>erfect  indicative  represents  something  as 
finished  or  ended  by  a  certain  past  time. 

Ex. — "Here  a  small  cabin  had  leen  erected.''''  "  The  cars  had  started  when  we 
came  there," 

I  It  is  not  always  necessary  to  use  this  tense,  merely  because  the  act  or  state 
was  finished  or  ended  by  a  certain  past  time. 

Ex.—" Little  John  teas  up  before  daylight;"  "  The  horse  jumped  into  the  field,  and  soon 

afterwards  began  to  eat  the  corn,'' — are  proper,  and  not  the  same  as, "  had  been  up" ; 

——''■'■  had  jumped" 

?  290.  The  pluperfect  subjunctive  or  potential  denotes  simply 
past  time,  and  denies  the  act  or  state. 

Ex. — "  We  might  have  sailed.''^  "  If  I  had  been  at  home,  I  should  have  gone.'''' 
The  illiterate,  whose  sagacity  is  sometimes  greater  than  that  of  philosophers,  freqneTitlv 
endeavor  to  express  this  mood  in  pluperfect  time ;  thus. .  "ffad  I  ov  [have]  knoron  it ;"  '■^Had 
he  ov  touchfd  me."  Observe  also  that  we  can  say,  "  The  tree  bears  better  fruit  than  if  it 
had  been  grafted ;"  and,  having  gone  into  the  past,  we  still  say,  "  The  tree  bore  better  fruit 
than  if  it  luxd  been  grafted." 

?  291.  The  future-perfect  tense  represents  something  as 
finished  or  ended  by  a  certain  future  time. 

Ex.—"  The  house,  when  finished,  w'dl  have  cost  a  fortune." 


?  A  tense  is  sometimes  used  emphatically,  to  deny  the  same  state  or 
act  of  the  person  or  thing  in  a  neip^hboring  tense. 

Ex.—"  He  km  been  rich."  But  he  is  not  so  now.  "  He  had  been  rich."  But  he 
WM  not  8o  then,    "  But  you  wiU  come  to  this."    Though  you  ave  not  in  such  a 


VERBS. TENSES,  J  75 

?  The  present,  the  past,  and  the  future,  are  sometimes  called  the  absolute 
tenses  ;  and  the  perfect,  the  pluperfect,  and  the  future-perfect,  the  relative  tenses 
for  these  generally  relate  from  one  point  of  time  to  anotlier.  ' 

Sometimes  the  prominent  idea  in  the  absolute  tenses  is,  the  existence  of  a  cer- 
tain act  or  state;  in  the  relative  tenses,  the  completion  of  the  act  or  state. 

?  Since  the  perfect  passive  participle  generally  implies  completion  a 
passive  verb,  in  the  absolute  tenses,^  is  often  equivalent  in  time  to  the  cor- 
responding relative  tenses  of  the  active  voice. 

Ex. — My  rose-bush  in  destro(/ed  •'''  "Some  one  haa  destroyed  my  rose-bush." 
"  My  coat  ?<;i^Z  then  be  fini^^hed  ;'"'  "The  t-AWov  will  tlien  have  finished  my  coat." 
"  Corn  appears  to  he  gathered  ;''''  "  Tlie  farmers  appear  to  ham  gathered  their  coni." 
Hence  such  forms  as  may  be  loved,  may  be  taken,  must  be  loved,  must  be  taken  is 
tftught,  &c.,  are  ambiguous.  "  He  is  well  taaghf'^lle  has  been  well  educated  or 
He 'is  now  receiving  good  instruction.  "  Tlie  fleet  7nu,st  have  been  Gaptured"=^lt  is 
now  necessary  to  believe  it  has  been  captured,  or,  it  is  necessary  to  capture  it. 
Hence,  too,  the  present  passive  is  often  used  to  express  the  present  results  of  past 
actions.     "  The  church  is  built  of  granite."     "  This  book  is  well  printed.''^ 

?  The  forms  may  properly  bo  considered  subdivisions  to  the 
tenses.       See  p.  20. 

* , 

Moods  and  Tenses. — The  subject  of  moods  and  tenses,  though  apparently  a 
mystery,  has  perhaps  a  beautiful  philosophy  running  througli  it,  that  well  shows 
man  may  sometimes  be  wiser  in  his  instincts  than  in  his  reason  or  learning.  I 
have  room  for  but  a  few  and  therefore  incoherent  remarks,  wliich  are  designed  to 
bear  chiefly  upon  the  subjunctive  mood,  and  the  apparent  incongruity  of  tho 
tenses  in  regard  to  time.  According  to  Mr.  Bancroft,  the  verbs,  in  some  rude  In- 
dian lansruages,  express,  by  means  of  inflections,  entire  propositions.  It  is  known, 
too,  that  tlie  Emperor  Augustus  sometimes  required,  in  his  documents,  in  aliquern 
in  preference  to  alicui,  alleging  that  it  was  "  more  definite."  The  natural  growth, 
then,  of  a  language,  in  simplicity  and  improvement,  is  from  inflections  to  par 
tides ;  fur  a  separate  word  arrests  the  attention  better  to  an  idea  than  if  the  idea 
were  expressed  along  with  the  idea  of  another  word.  Our  subjunctive  mood,  ac- 
cordingly, has  been  well-nigh  absorbed  by  conjuneti^ns,  adverbs,  and  auxiliaries. 
Aorain,  there  are  two  worlds, — tlie  mental  and  the  material.  What  is  of  the  former, 
is  subjective  ;  of  tlie  latter,  ohjecti've.  The  mind,  though  dependent  on  matter,  is 
still,  as  poets  say,  "  its  own  kingdom,"  in  wliicli  "  an  eternal  noio  does  always  last." 
The  mental,  therefore,  often  predominates  over  the  material ;  and  hence  the  moods 
often  prevail  over  the  tenses.  Tlie  moods  properly  relate  to  the  mind  of  the 
speaker,  and  express  what  is  real,  ideal,  contingent,  or  willed ;  the  inflnitive  mood 
being  tolerated  only  as  we  tolerate  a  neuter  gender.  About  our  aifairs  we  are  con- 
tinually reasoning  and  conjecturing;  anrl,  consequently,  language  abounds  with 
sentences  havins:  conditions  and  conclusions.  A  condition  may  be  assumed  as  a 
fact,  as  that  which  may  become  a  tact,  as  a  mere  supposition  without  regard  to  fact, 
or  as  a  mere  supposition  contrary  to  fact;  and  the  conclusion  is  about  as  variable. 
(See  p.  170.)  Sucli  sentences  require  something  like  our  suBJUNorrvE  mood.  But 
siiall  we  make  the  mood  depend  on  the  conjunction  f  or  on  the  subjective  sense  of 
the  verb?  If  on  the  conjunction,  we  then  have  the  novelty  of  making  mood  a 
property  of  conjunctions,  the  forms  of  the  verb  are  disregarded,  and  our  mood 
floods  the  two  otner  declarative  moods.  But  if  on  the  subjective  sense  of  the  verb, 
nnd  on  the  peculiar  forms,  then  we  shall  at  least  be  in  the  analogy  of  all  the  sister 
hmguages,  and  readily  find  a  province  for  our  mood.  It  will  then  have  two  peculiar 
forms, — the  present  tense  and  the  past,  whicii  furnish  a  beautiful  distinction  where 
there  is  an  obvious  and  important  difference,  and  which  have  been  regarded,  by 
our  best  writers,  at  least  in  the  proportion  of  nine  to  one.  "  If  love  be  rough  with 
you,  be  rouRrh  with  love." — Shakespeare.  "If  all  the  year  were  playing  holidays, 
lo  play  would  be  as  tedious  as  to  work." — //.  "  He  brags  as  if  he  were  of  note.'* 
— /•/.  "  If  thou  warn  tho  wicked,  and  he  turn  not  from  his  wickedness,  he  shall 
die  in  his  iniquity." — Bible.  "If  the  husbandman  relax  his  labors,  and  his  fieldu 
be  left  untillcd,""&c. — E.  Everett.     "If  I  wtre  to  repeat  the  names  ....  I  sho-jid," 


]76  VERBS. — TENSES. 

&G.—I(l.    "  If  I  were  to  doubt I  should,"  &e.— i>.  WebsUr.    "If  xtwere  . .  . 

I  would  say,"  &o.—IiL  "  If  it  be  proved  that  he  also  was  an  accomplice,"  &C.—M. 
"If  the  question  we?-e,''  Sia.— Jeffrey.  "If  the  natural  course  of  a  stream  ^e  ob- 
structed,''^&c.—Jd.  Lord  Macaulay,  I  believe,  never  fails  to  distinguish  the  subjunc- 
tive forms  from  the  indicative.  Some  grammarians,  however,  would  abolish  them, 
or  merge  them  into  the  indicative  ;  but,  since  our  language  is  already  barren  ot  in- 
flections, it  were  a  pity  that  these  few  important  ones  should  also  be  dropped.  1 
am  aware  that  the  subjunctive  mood  is  often  disregarded  in  popular  usage  ;  yet, 
because  people  often  overlook  or  blur  in  the  bustle  of  worldly  pursuits  the  delicate 
logic  which  runs  through  languasre,  is  it  a  sufficient  reason  to  degrade  the  lan- 
guage itself  to  a  level  with  their  practice  or  ignorance  ?  To  the  two  tenses  of  this 
mood,  already  given,  may  be  added  the  pluperfect,  which  has  tlie  same  form  as  in 
the  indicative  mood,  yet  differs  from  it  so  much  in  sense  that  it  is  otten  parsed  as 
potential  by  eqdivalence  ! 

"  Oh  !  had  your  fate  been  joined  with  mine, 

As  once  this  pledge  appeared  the  token  ; 
These  follies  had  not  then  been  mine, — 

My  early  vows  had  not  been  brolcen?'' — Byron. 

Compare  with—"  Thy  name  is  princely :  though  no  poet's  magic 

Could  make  Ked  Jacket  grace  an  English  rhyme ; 
Unless  he  had  a  genius  for  the  tragic. 

And  introduced  it  into  pantomime." — Hqlleck  :  Old  Edition. 

The  latter  pluperfect  above  is  subjunctive,  and  not  indicative :  Because  it  is  con- 
strued like  the  admitted  forms  of  the  subjunctive;  it  is  equivalent  to  a  potential 
form;  in  time,  it  is  not  antecedent,  but  concomitant  or  subsequent ;  a  conclusion, 
even  if  more  certain  than  a  supposition,  is  still  mental,  and  not  matter  of  fact ; 
literally  put  into  German,  the  form  would  be  an  unquestioned  subjunctive ;  the  two 
langusxges  are  precisely  analogous  in  this  construction.  It  is  surprising  that  more 
than  500  grammarians  have  overlooked  this  point  for  two  or  three  centuries. 

Now,  as  to  the  tenses.  The  moods  often  prevail  over  them  ;  and  afiy  deviation 
from  the  strict  time  of  the  latter, may  be  considered  modal.  Let  us  suppose  that 
we  have  the  present  and  the  pad  indicative.  These  will  express  whatever  is  now 
taking  place,  and  whatever  has  taken  place ;  and  these  are  all  the  events  that  wo 
know  with  certainty.  Now,  suppose  that  our  chief  concern  is,  to  express,  not 
time,  but  the  nature  of  the  act  or  state,  and  mood,  or  modality,  from  reality  or  the 
greatest  certainty  as  far  as  pure  ideality, — how  shall  we  get  forms  of  the  verb  ? 
We  are  surest  of  what  we  are  now  witnessing ;  and  hence  the  present  indicative 
expresses  not  only  present  events,  but  also  the  greatest  certainty.  Suppose  we 
wish  to  express  past  or  future  events  with  greater  than  ordinary  certainty,  of 
course  the  present  tense  is  the  best  form  we  can  find.  What  depends  on  the  or- 
ganization or  inherent  nature  of  things,  not  only  exists  now,  but  has  a  high  degree 
of  certainty  ;  therefore  the  present  tense  expresses  also  universal  truths.  Suppose 
now  that  we  wish  to  state  future  or  contingent  events ;  what  can  be  more  natural 
than  to  exnress  with  the  act  the  will,  authority,  obligation,  power,  necessity,  etc., 
on  which  Its  development  into  reality  depends  'i  and  hence,  will,  shall,  can,  may, 
must,  etc.,  is  adopted  as  a  part  of  the  verb.  Now  suppose  that  we  wish  to  exclude 
the  auxiliary  sense,  but  to  retain  that  of  uncertainty.  By  dropping  the  auxiliary, 
we  get  a  new  form,  which  will  answer  for  this  purpose,  and  may  be  called  the 
present  subjunctive.  Since  doing  precedes  having,  and  since  striving  is  apt  to 
cease  with  possession,  have  was  naturally  adapted  to  express  completion  ;  and  so  we 
get  the  perfect  tenses.  Lastly,  suppose  that  we  wish  to  express  acts  or  states  as 
merely  ideal.  None  of  the  forms  that  we  have  made,  will  answer.  But  we  can 
not  now,  or  in  future,  do  a  past  act.  So  what  could  be  more  ingenious  or  natural 
than  that  the  mind  stiould  go  back,  and  take  the  past  tense  and  the  pluperfect, 
and  convert  them  into  the  needed  tenses  ? — the  past  tense  to  denote  merely  the  act 
or  state,  and  present  or  indefinite  tiuiej  and  the  i>luperJect  to  denote  the  completed 
act  or  state,  and  past  time.  The  particii)les  and  the  infinitives  express  but  the 
Btate  of  the  act  as  relatively  continuing,  finished,  or  purposed.  This  seems  to  me 
to  be  the  general  phiiosopliy  of  the  teases  ;  the  minor  shades  of  expression  being 
but  flgarative  aooommodations  to  the  necessities  of  language. 


■  VERBS. PERSONS    AND    NUMBERS.  177 

Persons  and  Mstiaibers. 

?  The  per!^oai  and  siuiii'ber  of  a  verb  are  its  form  as  being 
suitable  to  the  person  and  number  of  its  subject. 
Ex. — I  am.     Thou  art.     He  is.    We  are.    They  are. 

Excepting  the  verb  he  and  some  auxiliaries,  English  verbs  have  but  few 
variations  to  express  persons  and  numbers ;  and  hence  these  properties  must 
generally  be  inferred  from  the  subject.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  too,  that  only 
the  first  part  of  the  verb,  or  that  which  predicates,  expresses  the  person  and 
number. 

?  A  finite  verb  must  ai^ree  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 

That  is,  it  must  be  expressed  according  to  the  Conjugation,  pp.  24-29,  which 

shows  how  the  best  writers  and  speakers  express  the  verb  in  regard  to  it^  subject. 

?  The  subject  of  every  finite  verb,  in  regard  to  person  and  num- 
ber, either  is,  or  may  be  represented  by,  /,  thou.,  he.,  she.,  it.,  we.,  you, 
or  they. 

?  294.  TJiou  generally  requires  the  verb,  or  the  first  auxiliary,  to  end 
an  est^  si,  or  i. 

Ex. — "  Thou  hnoicest — want— hast — sitst.'^''  "  Thou  art  the  man."  "  Hhowshalt 
not  hilV  Wert  is  used  as  well  as  wast,  and  is  analogous  to  art.  "  That  riches 
rarely  purchase  friends,  thou  didst  soon  discover,  when  thou  ivert  left  to  stand  tliy 
trial  uncountenanced  and  alone." — Johnson.  "  To  her  who  sits  wliere  thou  wert 
laid," — Bryant.  "  'Tis  aU  too  late — thou  wert,  thou  art,  the  cherished  madness  of 
my  heart." — Byron. 

?  295.  As  the  termination  required  by  thou,  is  sometimes  harsh,  there 
as  some  tendency  to  drop  it,  especially  in  poetry. 

Ex. — *'  0  thou  my  voice  inspire  who  touched  Isaiah's  hallowed  lips  with  fire." — 
Pofe.  "  Perhjips  thou  noticed  on  thv  way  a  little  orb,  attended  by  one  moon — her 
Samp  by  mg\\V—Follok.     "  But  thou shall  bind,:''— Spr ague. 

?  296.  He,  she,  or  it,  often  requires  the  verb  or  the  first  auxiliary  to  end 
m  s  or  th.      See  pp.  24-29  &  180.  ' 

Ex.— "He  writes  f  '<  He  wrlteth.''  "She  controls;''  "She  controUeth.''  "It 
■does  become  you  ;"  It  doth  become  you." 

?  297.  We,  you,  or  they,  never  allows  s  or  th  to  be  annexed  to  the 
Terb.  In  other  words,  plural  verbs  never  assume  s  or  th,  and  have  the 
•same  form  for  all  the  persons. 

Ex.— "We  learn,''  not  learns.  "They  learn,"  not  learns.  "You  learn.'^ 
■**  3^ohn,  James,  and  William,  [=they,]  learn." 

■Since  it  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  the  person  aud  number  of  the  subject 
when  it  is  variable  in  sense  or  complicated  in  its  words,  let  us  consider,  first,  the 
person  of  the  entire  subject;  secondly,  the  number  of  the  entire  subject;  and, 
iivsthy;,  what  terms  do  not  affect  the  form  of  the  verb. 

?  "298.  Person. — When  two  or  more  nominatives,  differing  in  per- 
son, are  taken  collectively,  or  are  connected  merely  by  and,  the  verb  pre- 
fers the  fii'st  person  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third ;  when  they 
are  taken  separately,  or  are  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  prefere  that  of  the 
nominative  next  to  it.  "  Tou  and  /,"  or,  "  You,  he,  and  i"=  We.  "  You 
and  he"=  Yen. 

■  Ex.—"  T&n,  -he,  and  7,  I  have  to  recite  our  lessons."  "  Tou  and  A«  |  have  to  recito 
your  lessons.'''  "  Fan  or  Jam  mistaken  ;"  better,  "  Either  you  are  mistaken,  or  I 
w.m,"    ^'TJtmi^rthy /?'i^ds  are  to  make  reparation."    Courtesy  usually  requires 


178  VERBS. PERSONS    AND    NUMBERS. 

tlie  first  place  to  be  given  to  the  second  person,  and  the  last  to  the  first.  "1^>^«,  A<?, 
and/;"  "Fowand/;"  ''She  and  I^ 

?  299.  Singular. — A  single  object  denoted  by  a  singular  nomina- 
tive;  a  united  group  of  objects  viewed  as  one  thing,  and  denoted  by  a 
singular  collective  or  other  noun  ;  an  object  conceived  as  a  whole  or  unit, 
though  denoted  by  a  plural  nominative,  or  by  several  nominatives  or 
words  which  may  be  connected  by  and;  two  or  more  distinct  or  different 
objects  taken  individually,  and  denoted  by  a  singular  nominative,  or  by 
several  nominatives, — ^require  the  verb  to  be  in  the  singular  number.  The 
word,  or  phrase,  each,  every,  no,  many  a,  or,  nor,  and  not,  hut  not,  as  well 
as,  &c.,  commonly  makes  a  part  of  such  a  subject,  and  modifies  its  sense. 

Ex. "Fire  |  "burns."     "The  army  of  Xerxes  was  'vanquished  by  the  Greeks." 

"  His  familv  \  is  large."  "  The  'Pleasures  of  Hope'  was  written  by  Campbell."  "Gold- 
smith"'8  'Mwin  and  Angelina'  is  a  fine  little  poem."  "  In  yonder  house  lives  a  great 
scholar  and  celebrated  writer.'^  "  The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband,  vraysP 
— Burns.  "Why  is\dast  and  «?/<(?*•  [man]  proud?"  "  Tlie  twenty  dollars  [a 
twenty-dollar  bill]  li/is  heen  duly  received.''''  "  Fifty  feet  of  the  second  square  was 
reserved  for  a  church."  The  last  two  verbs  should  probably  be  plural ;  and  yet 
the  singular  implies  a  unity — a  compactness  in  one— which  the  plural  would  not 
necessarily  express,  "  Descent  and  fall  to  us  is  adverse." — Mdton.  Here  is  is 
more  expressive  than  are  would  be.  It  implies  that  the  fall  is  so  connected  with 
tlie  descent,  or  follows  it  so  closely,  that  the  two  may  be  considered  one  thing.  And 
unites  the  two  in  form,  but  is  strengthens  the  union  by  uniting  tiiein  also  in  sense, 
"  Wooing,  wedding,  and  repenting,  is  a  Scotch  jig,  a  measure,  and  a  cinque-pace." 
— Shakespeare.  Here  is  seems  to  be  proper  as  referring  to  the  three  things  taken 
in  a  certain  order  as  one  whole.  "Down  comes  the  tree,  nest,  eagles,  and  alV — 
Fontaine.  But  I  question  whether  even  poetic  license  can  protect  the  following 
couplet:  '•'Here's  no  war-steed's  ne'igh  and  champing,  shouting  clans  or  squadrou?* 
stamping." — Scott.  "Every  house  \  was  burned,  and  every  man,  woman,  and  child, 
was  killed.''''  "  Tuesdaij,  Wednesday,  or  Thursday,  was  the  appointed  day."  "  To 
forsake  a  friend,  or  to  divulge  his  secrets,  is  mean."  "Neither  precept  nor  disci- 
pline I  is  so  forcible  as  example."  "  No  rtouse  and  no  fence  |  was  left.^'  "  Many  a 
man  \  has  fallen  a  victim  to  intemperance."  "  There  is  Concord,  and  a  Lexington, 
and  A  Bunker  Hill, — and  there  they  will  remain  for  ever." — Webster.  Empliatic 
arrangement.    "  For  thine  is  the  k'mgdom,  and  the  power,  and  the  glory." — B'dtle. 

?  300.  Plural. — Two  or  more  objects  denoted  by  a  plural  nomina- 
tive ;  a  single  object  or  group  conceived  as  to  its  parts  or  individuals,  eveu 
when  denoted  by  a  collective  or  other  noun  singular  in  form ;  objects  denoteii 
by  a  plural  nominative  in  company  with  singular  nominatives,  taken  sepa- 
rately, or  connected  by  or  or  nor ;  two  or  more  distinct  or  ditferent  ob- 
jects taken  collectively,  and  denoted  by  different  nominatives  connecteil 
by  and, — require  the  verb  to  be  in  the  plural  number. 

Ex.—"  The  fires  \  burn.''^  "  The  ashes  |  are  hot."  "  The  council  |  were  di- 
vided in  opinion."  "  The  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure."  "  Forty  head  of 
cattle  I  are  grazing  on  yonder  meadow."  "  John,  James,  and  William,  are  study- 
in^" —The  boys  are  studying.  "You,  he,  and  /,  are  allowed  to  go."  "To  love  our 
enemies,  to  mind  our  own  business,  and  to  relieve  the  distressed,  are  things  ofteiier 
praised  than  practised."  "  Either  the  magistrate  or  the  laws  are  at  fault."  Tht» 
plural  nominative  should  generally  be  placed  nearest  to  the  verb;  or  else  each 
nominative  should  have  its  own  verb  expressed  or  understood.  "  Either  the  laws 
are  at  fault,  or  else  tlie  magistrate"  [is].  Sometimes  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest 
nominative.    "  Wlien  there  is  an  ir^'ant  or  infants  who  \  are  yet,"  tfec. — Mo.  Satutea. 

?  Terms  that  do  not  affect  the  form  of  the  verb. — Adjuncts  ta 
the  nominative,  explanatory  terras,  parenthetical  terras,  terras  to  which. 
Others  are  compared,  terras  excluded  or  excepted,  terras  apparently  set. 
aside  for  a  more  expressive  or  import'int  one,  and  tcjrras  mentioned  as  if 


VERBS. — PERSONS    AND    NUMBERS.  l79 

the  objects  had  not  been  thought  of  till  one  assertion  was  already  made,— 
do  not  affect  the  form  of  the  verb. 

Ex. — "The  long  row  of  elms  was  luxuriantly  groen."     "Star  after  star  ap- 

Eears."  "  Death  is  the  wages  of  sin."  "  The  wages  of  sin  are  deaths  "  Peace  and 
onor  are  the  crown  of  virtue."  "  Yi\%  pavilion  were  dark  waters  and  thick  clouds." 
Which  term  is  explanatory,  will  depend  on  the  sense,  or  on  the  conception  of  the 
person  using  the  expression. 

Consider  carefully  what  is  chiefly  to  be  said,  and  of  which  thing  it  is  to  be 
said.  "The  Bible,  or  IMij  Scriptures,  is  the  best  book."  "This  man  (and  in- 
deed all  such  men)  deserves  death."  "  Our  statesmen,  especially  John  Admns^ 
have  reached  a  good  old  age."  "  The  carriage,  as  well  as  the  horses,  was  much 
injured."  "Industry,  and  not  mean  savings,  produces  wealth."  "Since  none 
hul  thou  can  end  it." — Milton,  "  What  black  despMr,  what  horror  fills  his  mind." 
— Tliornson.  '■'■Honor  and  virtue,  nay,  even  interest  demands  a  different  course." 
"  Not  only  ihQ  father,  but  the  son  "^also,  was  imprisoned."  "  Well,  there  rs  Bar- 
dolph,  and  Smith,   and  Jones,  and  loho  else  f ' 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  collective  noun  that  is  singu- 
lar in  form,  expresses  unity  or  plurality  of  idea,  or  whether  its  verb  should  be 
singular  or  plural.  This  wiU  depend,  in  most  instances,  on  the  particular  view 
or  conception  of  the  speaker.  Jn  the  plural  sense,  a  collective  noun  may  be 
compared  to  a  rope  having  its  strands  or  threads  untwisted  ;  in  the  singular,  to 
the  same  in  a  twisted  state.  Collective  nouns  denoting  persons,  are  more 
commonly  made  plural  than  those  denoting  things ;  and  we  may  say,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule  for  all  cases,  that  whenever  the  term  implies  a  separation,  or  distribu- 
tion, or  diversity,  in  regard  to  the  place,  the  time,  the  action,  or  the  state,  the 
verb  should  be  plural,  but  not  in  other  cases.  Hence  I  should  say,  "  The  public 
are  respectfully  invited;''^  "  My  family  are  in  the  country" — some  here,  same 
there;  '' M.y  family  is  in  the  country" — all  in  one  place;  ''The  committee  wai 
large;"  "The  committee  were  not  unanimous;"  "  Congress  has  adjourned  ;"  "  A 
number  of  boats  [from  time  to  time]  have  passed  up  the  river  this  spring,  and 
the  number  [as  a  whole]  is  daily  increasing."  This  last  example  shows  tiio 
distinction  of  unity  and  plurality  of  idea,  in  its  greatest  nicety. 

?  301.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  supply  a  substantive,  to  com- 
plete the  entire  subject. 

Ex.—"  Little  and  often  fills  the  purse"==  To  put  in  little  and  often,  etC;^  "  Poor 
and  content  is  rich,  and  rich  enough"= 2b  be  poor  and  content,  etc.  "  Slow  and 
steady  often  outtravels  ha3te"=  What  is  slow  and  steady,  etc.  "  Upwards  of  forty 
houses  were  burned"=^  gi'oup,  amounting  to,  etc. 

?  302.  Most  verbs  in  the  imperative  mood  are  in  the  second 
person,  agreeing  with  thou,  you,  or  ye,  understood,  and  sometimes 
expressed. 

Ex.— "Go  where  glory  waits  thee"=6Jo  thou,  G^ia.  " Strike— for _  the  srreen 
graves  of  your  sires"=.S7/'iA;e  ye,  qIq.  "'Guard  tlwu  the  pass."  "- Q\x\i,,  do  yoa 
gather  the  strawberries." 

Verbs  of  this  mood  are  sometimes  found,  especially  in  poetry,  of  the  first  or  tjie 
third  person.    When  thus  used,  the  nominative  is  always  expressed.      See  p.  ITU. 

?  303.  A  verb  is  sometimes  made  to  agree  with  t7,  in  order  to 
express  a  well-known  act  or  state  of  something  not  easily  discerned 
or  named,  or  named  by  several  words  in  the  subsequent  part  of  the 
sentence. 

Ex.—"  It  snows."  "  It  rains."  "  It  cleared  off."  "-It  behooves  us  to  improve 
our  time."  "  What  shall  it  profit  a  man  if  he  gain  the  whole  warld  and  lose  Aw  own 
soulP'  When  such  verbs  denote  states  of  the  weather,  or  the  fitness  ot  tinner*, 
thev  are  usually  called  impersonal  or  unipersonal  verbs,  thouerh  rather  unnecessa. 
rily  so  ;  for  the  diflaculty  lies  in  the  import  of  it,  and  not  in  the  agreement  ot  tlie 


180  AUXILIARY    VERBS. 

verb.  Only  such  expressions  as  meseems.,  meseemed,  metJiinks,  methovp7d,  should 
be  termed  impersonal,  or  rather,  a/wmalous ;  because  they  have  no  nominatives 
with  which  they  can  properly  agree.  So,  "  Forthwith  on  all  sides  to  his  aid  uas 
run  bv  angels  many  and  strong," — Milton  ;  (a  Latinism ;)  and  perhaps,  "  God  said, 
Lei  there  be  light,  and  there  was  light,"  for  the  verb  let  hardly  refers  to  any  being 
addressed.  Meseema  is  abridged  from  "  To  me  it  seems  ;"  and  metUnls  perhaps 
from  "  To  me  it  thinks,"  i.  e.,  it  causes  me  to  think.  "  Prince.  Where  shall  we 
soioiirne  till  our  coronation?  Gloucester.  Where  ii  tJiinks  best  unto  your  royal 
^eW'—S^iakeiipeare :  Old  EUtion.  In  the  sentence,  "■Thinks  I  to  myself,  I'll  stop" 
— Jane  Taylok,  tJdnks  may  be  parsed  according  to  Note  XI,  or  as  put  for  tJiink 
by  enaUag'e. 

Person-and-D  amber  inflections  belong  to  the  indicative  mood  and  the  poten- 
tial, mostly  to  the  in  iicalive.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  varied,  only  to  agree 
witli  thou,  and  then  not  always.  Whether  5  or  &s  should  be  added,  should  al- 
ways be  determined  in  accordance  with  the  regular  mode  of  forming  the  plural 
of  nouns;  hence  the  forms  "  wooes,"  '"  cooes,"  &c.,  which  are  sometimes  found, 
should  be  woos,  coos.  Most  auxiliaries  are  not  varied  in  the  third  person  sin- 
gular. Thou  requires  the  termination  t,  si,  or  est.  Are,  were,  shall,  and  will, 
take  t;  the  other  auxiliaries,  st.  Other  verbs  take,  in  the  indicative  present,  st 
or  est,  according  as  they  require  s  or  es  in  the  third  person  singular ;  though 
sometimes  est  is  preferred  even  to  st.  A  few  verbs,  which  end  in  vowel  sounds, 
always  assume  est ;  as,  wooest.  In  the  past  tense,  the  verbs  assume  st  only, 
if  it  will  coalesce  in  sound  ;  if  not,  est.  Poets  and  preachers  sometimes  reject 
either,  to  avoid  harsh  or  difficult  pronunciation.  In  general,  st  only  should  be 
added,  when  this  is  sufficient ;  and  when  the  verb  already  ends  in  the  sound  of 
st,  or  in  a  cluster  of  consonants  not  oalescing  well  with  st,  the  termination  may 
be  rejected.  In  the  solemn  stylo,  in  stead  of  s  or  65,  th  is  added,  if  it  will  coa- 
lesce in  sound ;  if  not,  eth. 

AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

?  An  auxiliary  verb  helps  another  verb  to  express  its  meaning 
in  a  certain  manner  or  time.  Verbs,  not  auxiliary,  are  called  prin- 
cipal verbs. 

?  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  he  and  all  its  variations;  do.,  did ;  can., 
could;  have.,  had;  may,  might;  must;  shall,  should  ;  ivill,  would. 
See  p.  16. 

?  304.  Sometimes  he,  do,  have,  will,  would,  or  even  can,  is  used  as  a 
principal  verb.  When  so  used,  it  is  not  combined  with  a  principal  verb 
expressed  or  understood,  Do=-aci{,  perform  ;  EXYE==own,  possess ;  will 
•^wvih,  bequeath. 

Ex.— "  It  M  easy  to  Z>6  idle."  "lie /io.?  <f one  the  work."  ^^  Rq  tvUled  hx^,  prop- 
erty to  his  sister."  "  I  would  I  could  please  you."  "  In  evil,  the  best  condition  is, 
not  to  will ;  the  second,  not  to  can.'''' — Bacon. 

?  305.  Auxiliary  verbs  are  often  convenient  when  we  wish  to  ex- 
press the  verb  interrogatively,  negatively,  or  elliptically. 

Ex.—"  Do  you  know  Lyd.a  Flare  ?"  Placed  before  the  nominative,  '■^Gun  von 
^of"  "  I  do  not  want  his  company."  "  If  man  will  not  do  justice,  God  tvilV'ldf) 
justice].  "  He  could  have  done  it,  and  so  cmld  you,"  "They  herd  cattle  and  raise 
corn,  juat  ns  we  used  to  do;'''  i.  e.,  to  herd  cattle  and  raise  corn.  Do  is  frequently 
thus  used  as  a  sort  of  pro-verh,  to  represent  an  active  verb  already  mentioned. 
Some  (grammarians  condemn  this  use  of  it;  yet,  as  it  often  enables  us  to  avoid  the 
repetition  of  n  loug  and  tedious  phrase,  our  Tanguage  can  not  well  spare  it. 


AUXILIARY    VERBS.  181 

?  Be  primarily  signifies  predication  or  existence;  do,  action  in  general, 
which  is  limited  to  a  particular  kind  by  the  principal  verb  ;  can,  to  know  ; 
have,  to  possess;  maij,  ability;  must,  necessity;  shall,  proceeding  frora 
another's  will  or  from  our  circumstances ;  and  will,  proceeding  from  our 
own  will     But  the  primitive  or  literal  sense  can  not  always  be  traced. 

Ex.—"  The  corn  is  planted."  "  He  does  study."  "  I  can  [know  how  to]  read." 
(To  con  a  le3son=to  study  it.  Out  of  *e/»=beyond  perception.)  "I  have  been 
hurt."  ^'Imay  buy  it;"  "You  might  help  us."  {A  might>/ storm.)  "He  shall 
study."     "  He  will  study." 

?  306.  Be  is  used  chiefly  to  express  the  verb  in  the  passive  and  pro- 
gressive forms.      See  p.  184. 

Ex.— "The  house  is  luilt:''  "The  leaves  are  falling  y  It  shows  when  and 
how  the  person  or  thing  exists  in  the  state  denoted  by  the  rest  of  the  verb. 

?  307.  I>o  or  did  generally  adds  force  to  the  predicate,  or  expresses 
the  emphatic  form.       See  p.  184. 

Ex. — "  I  do  really  lelleve  it."    "Do  you  treat  him  well,  nevertheless." 

?  308.  Can  or  could  expresses  ability  or  possibility, — physical, 
mental,  or  moral. 

Ex. — "  I  can  carry  the  bucket."  '■'■Gan  you  write  a  composition  ?"  "  I  can  not 
JjreaTc  my  promise."  "  It  can  not  snow  here  in  July."  "  It  can  not  heP  "  Such 
a  man  could  not  live  in  our  neighborhood."     It  is  morally  impossible. 

•  309.  Have  or  Esad  makes  a  part  of  every  perfect  tense. 

?  310.  ITIay  or  nii^ht  expresses  ability,  possibility,  probability,  per- 
mission, wishing. 

Ex. — "I  rnigJit  have  bought  this  valuable  lot  then."  "It  might  be  answered 
thus."  "  It  may  rain  this  evening."  "  We  may  not  live  to  see  it."  "  You  may 
all  go  out  to  play."     '''■May  jom. prosper.''''     "  0,  tiiat  he  might  return  ,^" 

?  311.  Must  expresses  necessity, — physical,  mental,  or  moral. 

Ex. — '■'■Die  I  must.''''  "  But  for  a  little  tube  of  mercury,  the  whole  crew  must 
have  sunk.''''  "  There  must  have  been  a  heavy  rain  in  these  parts."  It  is  necessary 
to  believe  there  was.  "Your  promise  wws^  be  kept.''''  "My  votem«.9^  uoc  he  re- 
gistered in  favor  of  such  a  bill."     It  ought  not  to  be,  and  shall  not  be. 

When  we  look  into  the  world,  we  can  readily  observe  that  the  acts  or  states 
ascribed  to  objects,  proceed  eitlier  from  their  own  will  or  nature,  or  else  are 
caused  by  other  agents  or  things.  The  former  province  is  chiefly  that  for  will 
and  would,  the  latter  for  shaU  and  should. 

1  312.  Shall  or  should  sets  forth  the  act  or  state,  not  as  depend- 
ing on  the  doer's  will,  but  on  that  of  another;  or  as  proceeding  from 
authority,  influence,  or  circumstances  perhaps  out  of  his  control.  Hence, 
shall  often  implies  compulsion ;  and  should,  duty  or  obligation.  Frequently, 
they  denote  sometliing  as  simply  future  or  subsequent,  or  an  assertion 
modestly  set  forth  as  being  somewhat  a  condition  or  inference. 

Ex. — "  You  shall  stay  at  home  to-day."  "  Thou  sJmU  love  tliy  neighbor  as  thy- 
self." "I  shall  be  drowned;  for  nobody  will  help  m  ."  "I  resolved  that  he 
i^hould  go.''''  "  He  vowed  that  I  should  repent  of  it."  "  Whoever  shall  violate  this 
law,  shall  be  punished.''''  "  Our  children  shall  celehi'ate  this  day  with  bonfires  and 
illamluations."  It  will  come  to  pass.  "  Yes,  my  sou ;  yon  shall  often  find  the 
rich.'St  men  the  meanest."  In  your  course  through  life,  this  will  necessarily  in- 
trude itself  upon  your  notice.  (A  use  somewhat  obsolescent,  but  good.)  "  Go  and 
see  him,  and  you  shaU  never  want  to  see  him  again."  '■'■Should  you  ^nd  any  pa- 
paws,  halloo  to  us."  "I  should  be  obliged  to  him,  if  he  would  gratify  me."  '■  I 
aJiould  be  pleased  to  have  his  company"  [if  he  would  condescend  to  wait  upon  mej. 


182  VERBS. PARTICIPLES    AND    INFINITIVES. 

"Do  vou  think  the  book  will  sell?— I  should  tUnk  so"  [judging  from  Its  qualities, 
and  the  wants  of  the  public]. 

?  314,  Will  or  would  sots  forth  the  act  or  state  as  depending  on 
the  will  or  the  nature  of  what  is  denoted  by  the  subject  of  the  verb.'^ 
Hence  this  auxiliary  often  implie3  repetition  of  the  act.  Frequently,  it 
denotes  the  act  or  state  as  simply  future  or  subsequent. 

Ex.— "If  he  will  go  to  California  in  spite  of  remoustranee.  I  will  furnuJi  him, 
an  outfit ;  but  I  fear  he  will  find  but  little  gold  there,  and  will  never  hring  buck  as 
much  as  he  took  with  him."  "  The  cause  will  raise  up  armies.''  "  He  would  not-' 
</o  without  his  father's  word."  "TMsm^omW  answer  our  purpose."  "  He  knew 
that  this  would  have  teen  wrong."  "There  will  she  sit  and  weep  for  houi-s." 
"But  still  the  house  affairs  would  draw  her  thence." 

?  315.  In  a  dependent  proposition,  shaU  or  should  must  nearly  always 
be  used  to  express  simple  futurity  or  contingence ;  for,  in  such  a  proposi- 
tion, will  or  would  generally  refers  to  the  will  of  what  the  subject  denotes. 

Ex.—"  If  I  shall  have  heen^  "  If  you  shall  have  leenP  "  When  he  shall  goy 
"  Whoever  shall  say  so." 

Since  shall  and  vnll  are  often  misapplied,  the  following  rules  may  all  be  found  useful : — 

1.  Our  own  voluntary  actions  are  denoted  by  will^  and  our  contingent 
ones  hj  shall;  the  contingent  actions  of  others  are  expressed  by  will^  and 
their  compulsatory  ones  by  shall. 

2.  Shall,  in  the  first  person  of  dependent  propositions,  and  will,  in  the 
second  and  third  persons,  foretell.  Will,  in  the  first  person,  implies  voli- 
tion or  promise ;  and  shall,  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  implies  com- 
pulsion or  force.  Shall,  in  dependent  propositions,  foretells ;  and  will 
implies  volition.  Should  is  generally  preferable  to  would,  where  shall 
would  be  preferable  to  will;  and  vice  versa. 

3.  Will  or  would  excludes  the  voHtion  or  control  of  the  speaker  over 
the  act  or  state,  unless  he  is  also  what  the  subject  of  the  verb  denotes. 
Shall  or  should  excludes  the  volition  or  control  of  what  the  subject  denotes, 
over  the  act  or  state. 

The  first  and  second  rules  are  simple  but  inadequate ;  the  last  reaches  all  cases. 
The  auxiliaries  may,  can,  must,  will,  and  shall,  generally  accord  best  with 
one  another,  and  with  the  present  tenses;  the  auxiliaries  might,  could,  would, 
and  should,  generally  accord  best  with  one  another,  and  with  tiie  past  tensos. 

PARTICIPLES  AND  INFINITIVES. 

What  is  a  participle  ?    What  is  an  infinitive?      See  p.  165. 

?  Participles  and  infinitives  also  express  the  acts  or  states  ex- 
pressed by  other  forms  of  the  verb. 

?  They  likewise  have  voices. 

?  They  do  not  have  moods  ;  or  rather,  they  are  themselves  a  mood. 

?  316.  They  express  tense  relatively  and  in  any  period  of  time, 
and  not  absolutely,  like  finite  verbs,  in  fixed  periods  of  time. 

Ex. — "  He  CAMK  wounded  ;"  "  He  oame  woundingj"  "  He  came  to  wound.''"'  "  Ho 
ooitEs— WILL  ooMK  wounded. "    "  I  intend  to  go;""    "  I  intended  to  go:' 

?  They  do  not  have  person  and  nmnber,  and  therefore  do  not 
express  afHrmatioo. 


VERBS. — PARTICIPLHS    AND    INFINITIVES.  18-'} 

?  317.  While  they  have  the  general  meaning  of  verbs,  they 
also  partake  of  the  nature  of  noans,  adjectives,  and  adverbs. 

They  form  a  circuit  of  expressions  between  predicate-verb3,  and  o*-.her  parts  of 
speecli ;  and  hence  they  enrich  language  in  variety  and  power  of  expression. 

?  318.  Since  they  have  not  person  or  number,  or  do  not  predicate,  they 
ascribe  acts  or  states  to  substantives,  and  yet  leave  them  free  in  their  case 
construction  with  other  words ;  thus  enabling  us  to  abridge  clauses,  con- 
dense the  sentence,  and  give  suitable  prominence  to  each  of  its  parts. 

Ex. — "  Tlie  man,  turning  round  as  if  to  seek  a  passenger  of  whom  to  make  in- 
c  'Jiry,  beheld,  on  the  other  side  of  the  way,  another  man  apparently  engaged  in  the 
same  search."  "  The  man,  when  he  turned  round  as  if  he  sought  a  passenger  of 
whom  he  might  make  inquiry,  beheld,  on  the  other  side  of  the  way,  another  man 
who  was  apparently  engaged  in  the  same  search,"  is  more  tedious  than  the  pre- 
ceding sentence,  and  does  not  even  express  precisely  the  same  sense.  "  His  body, 
dropping  from  the  horse,  was  found,  after  several  days,  stretched  upon  the  ground, 
with  the  faithful  animal  still  standing  at  its  side."  Observe  here  how  the  finding 
of  the  body  is  made  most  prominent,  and  how  all  other  parts  become  duly  sub- 
ordinate. 

?  Their  brevity  gives  force ;  besides,  participles  are  often  the  most  vivid 
and  expressive  of  terms. 

Ex. — "  The  rising  sun,  o'er  Galston  moors,  with  glorious  light  was  glinting.'''' 


1  There  are  three  participles ;  the  present^  the  perfect,  and  the 
compound. 

t  There  are  two  infinitives  ;  the  present  and  the  perfect. 

?  319.  The  present  participle  ends  in  ing,  and  denotes 
continuance  of  the  act  or  state.  It  is  active,  if  from  an  active  verb; 
sometimes  passive. 

?  320.  The  perfect  participle  ends  in  ed,  or  is  formed  as 
shown  in  the  list  of  irregular  verbs ;  and  it  denotes  completion, 
sometimes  continuance.  It  is  passive,  except  when  combined  with 
the  auxiliary  have. 

?  §21.  The  coiiipousid  participSe  consists  of  bein(/,  having, 
or  having  been,  and  some  present  or  perfect  participle  placed  after  it. 

?  The  words  being,  having,  having  been,  are  needed  and  inserted  to  ex- 
clude predication ;  to  express  voice,  time,  cause,  &c. ;  or  to  bring  out  the 
sense  of  the  participle  more  exactly,  clearly,  or  forcibly. 

Ex.—"  This  proved,  the  conclusion  is  irresistible."  Proved  is  apparently  finite, 
and  the  sense  is  obscure  or  ambiguous.  "  This  being  proved,  the  conclusion  is 
irresistible."  "  The  old  chief,  warned  by  these  few  words,  departed  immediately." 
Passive.  "  The  old  chief,  having  warned  by  these  few  words,  departed  imme- 
diately." Active.  "  He  comes  attended  by  his  friends."  Present.  "  He  comes, 
having  heen  attended  by  his  friends."  Past.  "The  army  did  not  march  ill  pro- 
vided.'''' State.  "  The  army  did  not  march,  &ei«^7  ill /?/'ot;i<:^eJ."  Cause.  "  I  saw 
the  man  ndmitted,''''  is  not  equivalent  to  "  I  aiiw  the  man,  beina  admitted.''''  "  The 
man  skilled  in  the  business,  was  appointed."  Kestrictive.  "  The  man,  be'ing  skilled 
in  the  business,  was  appointed."  Not  restrictive.  The  compound  participle  ia 
never  restrictive.  "  Santa  Anna  kept  no  prisoners ;  it  haoing  been  decreed  so." 
Voice,  time,  and  cause. 

The  nature  of  our  compound  participles  is  misunderstood  in  all  the  English  grammars  I 
have  seen. 


184  VERBS. —  PARTICIPLES    AND    INFINITIVES. 

1  322.  The  preseait  iialiiistive  begins  with  to,  and  is  rela- 
tively present  or  future  in  time. 

?  323.  The  perfect  iaifiaiitive  bogins  with  to  have,  and  de- 
notes completion,  or  past  time. 

Ex. — "  I  hoped  to  see  you."  "  He  appears  to  be  rich."  "  He  appeai-s  to  have 
been  rich." 


?  We  may  consider  participles  and  infinitives,  Jirst,  as  combined 
vvith  auxiliaries  to  make  finite  or  other  verbs ;  secondly,  as  being 
participles  and  infinitives  proper;  and,  thirdly,  as  having  become 
words  of  other  parts  of  speech. 

?  324.  Participles  are  corabii-ed  with  participles  to  make  com- 
pound participles. 

Ex, — Having  been;  being  worn;  having  been  standing.  "Being  standing;" 
rarely  used. 

?  325.  The  present  participle  is  combined  with  ttie  auxiliary  he 
and  its  variations,  to  make  the  progressive  form. 

Ex. — To  be  writing ;  to  have  been  writing.    "  The  bells  are  tolling.'''' 

?  226.  The  perfect  participle  is  combined  with  the  auxiliary  be 
and  its  variations,  to  make  the  passive  form  or  voice, 

Ex. — To  be  written ;  to  have  been  written.     "  He  is  gone.''''      "  He  was  struck.'''' 

?  327.  The  perfect  participle  is  combined  with  the  auxiliary  have 
and  its  variations,  to  express  the  perfect  tenses.  It  is  then  active,  if 
from  a  transitive  verb. 

Ex. — To  have  written ;  to  have  been  writing.     I  Jiai  written. 

?  328.  The  compound  j^cirticiple  is  not  properly  combined,  with 
any  auxiliary,  as  a  part  of  a  finite  verb. 

Ex. — "A  new  party  is  now  being  formed^''''  should  be,  "A  new  party  is  now 
forming.''''  "The  church  was  theii  being  built,''''  should  be,  "  The  church  was  then 
huilding  .^'' 

?  329.  The  present  infinitive,  without  the  sign  to,  is  confined 
with  the  auxiliaries  do,  can,  may,  must,  will,  and  shall,  and  with 
their  past  forms,  to  express  absolute  tenses. 

Ex-—"  He  does  [to]  study:''  ^'■lcan\  study^l  am  able  to  study.  "  I  shall  \ 
ttvdy:''     "  I  would  \  study:'' 

The  orijjinal  infinitive  properly  has  not  to  ;  the  form  with  to  is  made  from  the 
other,  and  is  needed,  in  construction,  to  distinguish  the  infinitive  from  the  present 
indicative  or  imperative.  Thus  the  preposition  to  has  become  a  sort  of  auxiliary 
to  the  infinitive,  though  not  an  auxiliary  verb ;  for  the  infinitive,  not  expressing 
affirmation,  needed  not  a  verb  for  its  auxiliary. 

?  330.  The  infinitive  is  also  construed,  without  the  sign  to,  after 
the  active  verba  bid,  make,  need,  hear,  |  let,  see,  feel,  and  dare  ; 
sometimes  after  find,  have,  help,  please,  and  equivalents  of  see  ;  and 
sometimes  after  a  conjunction  or  in  colloquial  expressions. 
,  Ex.—"  Let  D8  sing:'  "  I  heard  him  say  it."  "  You  had  better  go.''  "  They 
learn  to  read  and  [to]  write.    [It  is]  "  Better  [to]  lose  than  [to]  be  disgraced." 


VERBS. PARTICIPLES    AND    INFINITIVES.  X85 

?  331.  Tlie  participle  may  express  something  subordinate — 

As  the  cause.     "  John,  being  tired,  went  to  bed."  [fore  feet. 

As  the  means.     "The  horse  charged  upon  the  wolves,  striking  them  with  his 

As  the  manner.     "  The  cars  came  rattling.''^      See  Southey's  Lodore. 

As  the  time.     ^'Having  taken  shelter  here,  he  saw  an  ant,"  &c. 

As  the  state.     "He  became  attached  to  us." 

As  the  accompaniment.     "  She  sat  near,  reading  a  book." 

As  the  condition.     '^Circling  round,  you  may  approach  on  the  other  side." 

As  the  respect  wherein.     "  I  consider  him  as  having  lost  his  right." 

?  332.  It  is  sometimes  used — 

Absolutely  with  a  substantive.     "The  bolls  having  rung,  we  went  to  church." 

Absolutely  after  an  infinitive.     "  To  go  prepared,  is  necessary." 

?  333.  The  infinitive  may  express  something — 
As  the  cause.     "I  grieve  to  hear  of  your  bad  conduct." 
As  the  purpose.     "  And  they  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray.'" 
As  simply  a  future  or  subsequent  event.     "  He  fell  to  rise  no  more." 
As  the  respect  wherein.     "Willing  to  wound  and  yet  afraid  to  strike." 
As  a  determination  or  obligation.  "  I  am  to  go.^'  "  It  is  to  be  deplored,  that,"  &c. 
As  the  manner.     "All  things  went  to  suit  me." 

As  the  supplement  of  a  comparison.     "  Good  enough  to  sell."     "  So  high  as  to 
be  invisible,"     ''  He  knows  better  than  to  veiiture." 

?  334.  It  is  sometimes  used — 

As  a  subject.     ^'To  cultivate  the  earth  is  the  most  pleasant  occupation." 

As  an  object.     "  He  is  learning  to  read."     "  The  ship  is  about  to  sail." 

As  a  predicate-nominative.     "  To  sin  is  to  suffer.'''' 

As  an  appositive.     "  Delightful  task!  to  rear  the  tender  thought." 

There  are  several  less  important  uses  of  participles  and  infinitives. 
?  335.  The  infinitive  may  be  construed  with — 
^^ivoun.    "  He  has  the  courage  to  venture." 
A  pronx)un.     "  Hear  him  speak." 
An  adjective.     "  He  is  anxious  to  start." 
A  verb.     "  He  seems  to  prosper."     "  I  came  to  remain." 
An  adverb.     "  He  knows  when  to  purchase." 
A  preposition.     "  He  is  about  to  sell  his  farm." 
A  conjunction.    "  He  is  wiser  than  to  beheve  it." 
An  interjection,  elliptically.     "  0,  to  be  in  such  a  condition  I" 

?  The  participle  leans  to  the  adjective,  and  the  infinitive  to  the 
noun. 

Ex. — "I  am  studying'''' =1  am  in  the  state  of  studying ;  but,  "I  can  study'''' '-~\ 
am  able  to  do  the  thing  called  studying. 

?  336.  Since  every  act  or  state  must  belong  to  some  object,  par- 
ticiples and  infinitives  relate  to  substantives ;  and  since  they  partake 


186  VERBS. PARTICIPLES    AND    INFINITIVES. 

of  tlie  nature  of  other  parts  ot  speech,  they  may,  especially  the  in- 
finitive, modify  other  words  besides, 

Ex.—"  The  Passions  oft,  to  hear  her  shell,  thronj^ed  around  her  magic  cell."  To 
hear  relates  to  Passions,  and  also  modifies  thron/fed,  by  showing  the  purpose. 
Sometimes  the  principal  verb  is  omitted.  "To  tell  the  truth,  [I  must  confess]  I 
was  in  fault."  Sometimes  participles  and  infinitives  are  used  absolutely  or  in- 
dependently ;  though  words  by  which  we  muy  avoid  this  construction,  can  often 
h)e  supphed.  "  To  become  c?Mm?'i5eri^iZ,  is  ruinous."  [We]  '■'■  Considering  hia  youth, 
[think]  he  is  very  prudent."      See  p.  47. 

The  fore^oinp:  paragraph  is  substantially  Rule  XII.  In  the  syntax  of  verbs,  the  most  ob- 
vious distinction  is  into  verbs  finite  and  verbs  not  finite.  Since  finite  verbs  are  always  re- 
ferred to  subjects,  since  every  act  or  state  must  belong  to  some  object,  and  Gince  participles 
and  infinitives  "partake  the  nature  of  verbs,"  why  should  their  rfelation  to  a  Bubject  be  dis- 
regarded, or  less  regarded  in  one  than  in  the  other  ?  Our  rule  exhausts  the  syntax  of  parti- 
ciples and  infinitives,  whether  used  in  combination,  or  as  participles  and  infinitives  proper. 
To  p  trticiples  proper,  it  is  sufficient  to  apply  only  the  first  portion  of  the  Rule. 


?  33*7.  Participles  and  infinitives  become  nouns,  when  they  as- 
sume cases ;  and  they  may  then  be  used  in  any  case  except  the 
possessive. 

Ex. — "  To  love  is  natural."  "  Mary  is  learning  to  read.''''  "  There  is  little  glory 
m  hiving  been  detected  in  a  mean  action."  "  It  is  better  to  suffer  than  to  injure^'' 
"  No  sooner  has  he  peeped  into  the  world  than  he  has  done  his  do^ — Hadibras. 
Bere  the  infinitive  has  become  entirely  a  noun. 

1  338.  By  virtue  of  their  verbal  sense,  verbal  nouns  may  govern 
other  substantives  in  the  objective  case,  or  be  modified  adverbially; 
and  by  virtue  of  its  substantive  sense,  the  participle  may  govern  an- 
other substantive  in  the  possessive  case. 

Ex — "  To  love  our  neiqlilors,  is  our  duty."  "^is  having  sometimes  written  to 
me,  is  no  evidence  of  Mary's  corresponding  with  him."  Sucli  possessives  are 
authorized  by  good  writers:  it  is  often  better,  however,  to  use  an  ordinary  noun, 
or  a  clause  beginning  with  that. 

?  339.  The  infinitive  always  remains  abstract,  and  is  never  g^\- 
erned  by  a  preposition,  except  sometimes  by  about  or  except. 

?  340.  The  participle  may  so  far  lose  the  nature  of  the  verb  as 
to  assume  the  modifications  of  a  noun,  or  become  even  concrete. 

Ex.—"  Painting  and  sculpture."  "  Good  lodgings.''''  "  In  the  arranging  of  his 
affairs"— In  the  arrangement  of  his  affairs.  The* participle,  with  an  article  before 
it  and  o/"  after  it,  is  always  a  noun ;  and,  as  such,  converts  adverbs  into  adjectives, 
or  is  compounded  with  them.  "By  carefully  reading  your  composition;"  "  Bv 
the  careful  reading  of  your  composition."  "  In  setting  forth  his  system  ;"  "  In  the 
aetting-forth  of  his  system."; 

?  Participles  and  infinitives  lose,  with  their  verbal  nature,  the 
idea  of  time. 

?  341.  The  participle  sometimes  becomes  a  participial  adjective  ; 
that  is,  it  ascribes  the  act  or  state  to  its  subject  as  a  quality. 

Ex.— "A  shattered  oak."  "  Life's  fleeting  moments."  Sometimes  it  becomes  a 
mere  adjective.     "  This  is  surprising''^— wonderful. 

Participles  sometimes  become  adverbs,  prepositions,  or  conjwictions. 

Ex.— "  It  is  freezing  cold."    Concerning,  respecting.     Provided.  ' 


VERBS. CONJUGATION.  187 


CONJUGATION. 

?  The  coiijiigatioii  of  a  verb  is  the  proper  combination  and 
regular  arrangement  of  its  parts,  to  express  voices,  moods,  tenses, 
persons,  and  numbers. 

?  342.  Most  forms  of  the  verb  consist  of  auxiliaries  combined 
with  participles  or  infinitives.     See  the  preceding  section. 

?  343.  Only  the  present,  the  preterit,  and  a  few  other  forms,  can 
be  used  without  auxiliaries. 

?  344.  The  preterit  can  not  be  properly  combined  with  any 
other  part  of  the  verb. 

Ex. — "  I  had  went,''''  "He  was  foo^,"  should  be,  "  I  had  gone,''''  "He  was  taken.''^ 

?  A  verb  that  has  assumed  an  auxiliary,  is  sometimes  callea 
compound. 

?  A  few  verbs  want  most  of  their  parts,  or  have  no  participles, 
and  are  therefore  termed  defective. 

?  These  are  beware^  methinks,  ought,  quoth,  wit,  and  most  of  the 
auxiliary  verbs. 

?  Beware,  derived  from  he  and  aware,  may  be  used  wherever  he  would  oc- 
cur in  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  he.  ^^Beware  of  pickpockets."  "  'Tis  wisdom 
to  beware,  and  better  to  avoid  the  bait  than  struggle  in  the  snare." — Dryden. 
"  If  angels  fell,  why  should  not  men  beware."" — Young. 

?  Ought,  said  to  be  an  old  preterit  of  owe,  is,  without  regard  to  the  infini- 
tive after  it,  in  the  present  tense  when  it  refers  to  present  tune,  and"  in  the  past 
tense  when  it  refers  to  past  time.  So  is  also  micst.  Present :  "  I  know  he  ought 
to  go ;"  "I  know  he  ought  to  have  gone."  No  s  is  added.  Past:  "I  knew  he 
aught  to  surrender"  [then] ;  "I  knew  he  ought  to  have  surrendered," 

?  Quoth  is  sometimes  used,  in  familiar  or  humorous  language,  for  said- 
*' '  Not  I,'  quoth  Sancho." 

?  Wit,  in  the  sense  of  know,  is  yet  used  in  the  phrase  to  wit='namely.  The 
other  forms  are  nearly  obsolete.       See  p.  16. 


?  345.  The  form§  are  certain  modes  of  expressing  the  verb, 
which  may  be  considered  subdivisions  to  the  tenses. 

?  In  general,  verbs  branch  out  thus  :  They  have  moods  ;  moods 
have  tenses ;  tenses  have  forms ;  and  forms  have  persons  and  num- 
bers. 

?  There  are  five  forms ;  the  common,  the  emphatic,  the  progres- 
sive, the  passive,  and  the  ancient,  or  solemn  style.       See  pp.  20-29. 

Define  the  forms.      See  p.  20. 

?  The  common  form  should  be  used  in  familiar  discourse. 

?  The  em,phatic  form  often  implies  an  opposite  opinion  which  it  aims 
to  remove.  When  do  or  did  is  excluded  by  some  other  auxiliary,  we 
simoly  lay  a  greater  stress  on  the  latter. 

9 


188  VERBS. CONJUGATION. 

?  The  progressive  form  can  generally  be  applied  only  to  acts  or  states 
that  may  have  intermissions  and  renewals.  Permanent  mental  acts  or 
states  can  therefore  be  seldom  expressed  in  it.  "  I  respect  him;"  not,  "I 
am  respecting  him."     This  form  is  sometimes  highly  vivid  and  expressive. 

?  The  ancient  form,  or  solemn  style,  is  used  in  the  Bible,  by  the  religious 
denomination  called  Friends,  frequently  in  religious  worship,  sometimes  in 
poetry,  and  sometimes  in  burlesque. 


Since  the  chief  purpose  of  Conjugation  is  the  mailing  of  predicates,  we  may  add  the 
following : — 

?  346.  Be  is  often  combined  with  about  and  the  infinitive,  to  ex- 
press something  as  future  or  impending  at  the  time  referred  to. 
Ex. — "  We  were  about  to  starts 

?  34*7.  Be,  in  some  of  the  tenses,  may  be  combined  with  the 
infinitive  to  express  determination  or  design. 
Ex. — "I  wa8  to  go  early."    "  They  are  to  he  sold.'''' 

?  348.  Have  is  often  combined  with  the  infinitive  to  express  obli- 
gation or  necessity. 

Ex. — "  I  have  to  go.''"'    "  I  Md  to  do  every  thing." 

?  349.  The  verbs  seem,  appear,  suppose,  &c.,  are  often  combined 
with  the  infinitive  to  modify  or  soften  the  assertion. 
Ex. — "  She  seeim  to  hnow  but  little." 

?  350.  A  proposition  is  made  interrogative,  generally  by  placing 
the  verb  or  some  part  of  it  after  the  nominative. 
Ex. — "  Know  YE  the  land  ?"    "  Have  you  seen  him  ?" 

351.  A  verb  is  made  negative,  by  placing  not  after  it  or  after  the 

first  auxiliary.      Participles  and  infinitives  generally  require  not  to 

be  placed  before  them. 

Ex. — "I  hnow  not.''''  "I  did  not  know'iV  '■'■  Not  to  hnow  some  things,  is  an 
hoHor."    '•'■Not  finding  me,  he  went  away." 

?  352.  Some  propositions  are  both  interrogative  and  negative. 
Negative  questions  imply  something  adverse  to  the  speaker's  belief, 
or  ask  for  confirmation;  affirmative  questions  ask  for  information. 
The  former  often  suppose  an  affirmative  answer  in  the  hearer ;  and 
the  latter,  a  negative  answer.  Both  kinds  are  answered  by  yes  or 
Tk^j  alike. 

^^•~!''^^  ^^  carriage  not  come  yet  ?"  "7s  Tiot  Philip  master  of  Thermopylae  ?" 
«fcc.  '■'■Slum  wo  gather  strength  by  irresolution  and  inaction  V  &c.  '■'-Did  you  go  ? 
—No."  '■'Did.  you  not  gof—No.'''  "And  did  they  not  catch  you?— No,  thank 
Heavwi.— You  were  not  kicked,  then?— No,  sir.— Nor  caned?— No,  sir.— Nor 
dragged  through  a  horse-pond  ?—0  Lord  !  no,  sir.''— Garrick. 


VERBS. EXERCISES.  189 

EXERCISES. 
Examples  to  be  Analyzed  and  Parsed. 

Ihrse  the  verbs,  including  participles  and  infinitives : — 

1. 

A  fierce  dog  caught*  the  robber.  A  cloud  is**  passing  over  us.  The 
place  was  covered  with  a  profusion  of  flowers.  Misers  hoard  money. 
Money  is  hoarded  by  misers.  That  noisy  marsh  is  now  draining.  Man 
becomefindolent  in  a  warm  climate.  Thou  didst  create  this  wondrous  world. 

2. 

You  do  not  understand  me.  We  have  learned  our  lessons.  The  hunt- 
ers had  killed  a  bear.  I  shall  remain  at  home  when  it  rains.  When  I 
have  completed  this  grammar,  I  will  visit  you.  The  turkeys  will  have 
left  the  field,  before  you  can  get  there.  I  will  not  beg  favors  of  you,  as 
others  have  done.  "  Will  you  walk  into  my  parlor  ?"  said  a  Spider  to 
a  Fly 

3. 

You  may  walk"  into  the  garden,'  but  you  must  not  pluck*'  the  flowers. 
The  storm  may  have  broken  down  the  old  apple-tree.  I  could  not  carry 
the  trunk.  A  good  resolution  should  not  be  broken.  If  a  horse  could 
have  been  procured,  we  would  have  sent  him.  If  you  should  write  to  her, 
it  might  appear  that  I  had  requested  it. 

4 

Who  would  refuse  to  reward<i  them*  ?  Does  any  man  believe  that  this 
giant  aggregate  of  states  can  be  preserved  by  force  ?  Shall  we  submit  to 
chains  and  slavery  ?  If  he  be  chosen,  he  will  become  insolent.  I  would 
I  were  with  him.  If  he  valued  it  highly,  he  would  not  sell  it  so  cheap. 
He  smiled  as  if  he  knew  me.  He  was  spoken®  of  for  Congress.  The  vic- 
toiy  had  been  ours,  had  they  fought  more  bravely. 

6. 

Revere  thyself,  and  yet  thyself  despise.  Do  not  give  a  poor  man  a 
stone,  after  he  has  died  for  want  of  bread.  Go,  wash  your  face,  and  get 
ready  for  school.  Seek  we  now  some  deeper  shade.  Lead  he  the  way 
who  knows  the  spot.     Hallowed  be  thy  name ;  thy  kingdom  come. 

6. 

He  was  born  to  be'  great.  I  came  here  to  works,  not  to  play.  The 
poem  was  to  be  published.  We  like  to  please  our  teacher.  You  behave 
too  badly  to  go  into  company.  The  house  is  estimated  to  have  cost  fifty 
thousand  dollars.  To  work^  is  better  than  to  starve'.  He  is  afraid,  me- 
thinks^,  to  hear  you  tell  it.    There  let  the  laurel  spread'^,  the  cypress  wave. 

T. 

James  ran  fast,  pursuing'  John,  and  pursued  by  us.  The  machinery, 
being  oiled  J,  runs  well.  Having  written  his  letter,  he  sealed  it.  Spring 
comes  robed  in  silken  green.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again. 
A  word  can  send  the  crimson  color  hurrying  to  the  cheek  with  many 
meanings.  The  falling'"  leaves  remind  us  of  declining  years.  There 
tyrants,  uncrowned''^,  unepitaphed'",  shall  rot. 


190  VERBS. EXERCISES. 

8. 

Considering''  liis  age,  he  is  far  advanced.  To  conclude,  I  shall  oppose 
the  sending  of  the  navy  there.  By  fearing  to  attempt  something,  you  will 
do  nothing.  There  is  much  to  do.  She  was  punished  for  having  torn 
her  book.     I  wept  a  last  adieu. 

9. 
The  flax  often  failed,  and  the  sheep  were  destroyed  by  wolves.  The 
mansion,  with  its  gardens  and  groves,  extends  over  a  large  area.  The 
seasons,  each  in  its  turn,  cheer  the  soul.  Every  twenty- four  hours  make 
a  day.  Every  people  have  some  kind  of  religion.  Each  privata^  flxmily 
pays  a  tax  of  five  dollars  for  water,  A  remnant  of  cloth  was  left' \  A 
remnant  of  the  tribe  were  left".  5  from  7  leave  2.  5  from  7  leaves  2. 
Two-fifths  are  greater  than  one-fourth  [is].  A  portion  of  these  Indians 
have  some  education. 

10. 
The  Rhine'  and  the  Rhone  rise"*  in  Switzerland.  Lofty  mountains, 
enormous  glaciers,  and  wild,  romantic  valleys,  successively  appear.  Tower 
and  temple,  hut  and  palace^  were  consumed  by  fire.  A  log-rolling,  a 
quilting,  or  a  wedding,  was  a  time  of  general  festivity.  Every  horse  and 
every  ox  was  stolen.  You"  or  he  is  in  fault.  You,  he,  and  I,  [we,]  are" 
invited.  Continued  exertion,  and  not  hasty  efforts,  leads  to  success. 
Every  doubtful  or  chimerical  speculation  was  forbidden. 

11. 
The  howling  of  the  wolf,  and  the  shrill  screaming  of  the  panther,  were 
mingled  in  nightly  concert  with  the  war-whoop  of  the  savages.  Where 
now  is  peace,  sobriety,  order,  and  love  ?  To  have  suffered  the  inhabitants 
to  escape,  would  have  prolonged  the  evils  of  war.  ThatP  Cortes  with 
but  a  handful  of  adventurers  should  have  conquered  so  great  an  empire, 
is  a  fact  little  short  of  the  miraculous. 

[To  have]  All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy''. 
All  play  and  no  work  makes  Jack  a  mere  toy. 
The  sun  hath  set  in  folded  clouds, — 

Its  twilight  rays  are  gone  ; 
And,  gathered  in  the  shades  of  night, 
The  storm  is  rolling  on. 

12. 

We  ought  not  to  sacrifice  the  sentiments  of  the  soul,  to  gratify  the 
appetites  of  the  body.  The  conclusion,  ^that  this  river  must  be  the  out- 
pouring of  a  continent,  was  acute  and  striking.  She  does  not  spend  her 
time  in  making  herself  look  more  advantageously  what  she  TeaWy  is. 

Observe  also  the  effect  on  the  mind  of  Richard,  of  Palmer's  being  ar- 
rested, and  committed  to  prison. — B.  Webster, 

Delightful  taskl  to  rear''  the  tender  thought. 

To  tench''  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot*"''. — TJiomson. 

(a.)  ^'CarujhC  is  a  verb,  it  affi/ms  something  of  a  subjoct;  principal  parts, — catnh,  cavght, 
eatchimj,  caught ;  irregular,  it  doi«8  not  assuiiio  ed;  transitive,  it  has  an  object  •  active,  it 
rBprennnts  th«  dog  as  acting;  indicative  ?ftoo(/,  it  dciclares  sometliing  as  an  actual  occur- 
rence or  fact;  pant  teruie,  it  niftjrs  the  act  simply  to  past  time  ;  and  of  the  Sd  2)er8on,  sin- 
gular number,  to  agree  with  its  nominative,  or  subject,  '■'■doq,""  according  to  Rule  XI. 
(Kepeat  it.)  0.)  "/«"  is  an  avxiliary  verb,— a  verb  that  helps  another  to  express  the  act 
In  a  certain  manner  or  time ;  It  hero  expresBcs  the  affirmation,  indicative  mood,  and  present 
tsnue,  of  the  verb  "i«  jmnidngr    "i«  passing"  is  a  verb,  etc.     (c.)  Say, potential  mood. 


VERBS. EXERCISES.  191 

It  expresses  the  permission  to  walk.    potential  mood,  it  erprcsaes  the  moral  necessity  nt 

plucking.  (<•'.)  "  To  reward  "  is  a  transitive,  active,  present  infinitive,  from  the  verb  re- 
ward, rewarded,  rewarded.  It  is  here  used  as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender,  ^d  jierson,  sin- 
aular  number ;  and  in  the  objective  case — being  the  object  of  the  verb  "  would  refuse" —  ac- 
cording to  Rule  IV.  (e.)  "TFa-s  spoken  of"  is  a  verb,  it  affirms  *  *  *  compound,  it  is  composed 
of  a  verb  and  a  preposition  ;  prin.  pts.,  etc.    ( /.)  "Tb  be"  is  an  infinitive,— a.  form  of  the  verb 

*  »  *  neuter,  it  does  not  imply  action  ;  present,  it  does  not  express  completion  at  the  time  re- 
ferred to  ;  and  it  relates  to  "  he,"  and  modifies  "  was  born,"  according  to  Rule  XII.    (g.) 

it  relates  to  "  7,"  and  modifies  "  came"  by  expressing  the  purpose,  according  to  Rule  XII. 
(A.) "principal  parts, — methinks,  methouqht ;  defective,  it  has  not  all  the  parts  of  a  full  verb 

*  *  *  and  impersonal,  being  used  only  in  the  3d  person,  sinqulnr  number,  without  a  suitable 
subject,  according  to  Note  XI.  (z.)  '•'Pursuing'^  is  a  participle, — an  inflected  form  *  *  *  tran- 
sitive, it  hiis  an  object ;  active,  it  represents  James  as  acting:  present,  it  expresses  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  act  at  the  time  referred  to  ;  and  it  relates  to  "  James,''''  according  to  Rule 
XVI.  ( j.)  '■'■Being  oiled'''  is  a  participle,  *  *  *  compound,  it  is  composed  of  the  auxiliary 
participle  "  being"  and  the  perfect  participle  '■'■oiled;'"  passive,  it  assumes  the  act  of  the  ob- 
j  ct  acted  upon,  etc.      (k.)  Equivalent  to  "  We,  considering  his  age,  think,'"  etc. ;  or  apply 

Note  XII.     (I.) and  one  of  the  nominatives  to  '■'•■rise,"  accordi"g  to  Rule  I.     (m.) and 

of  the  3rf  person,  plural  number,  to  agree  with   "  Rhine  and  Rhone'' — a  plural  subject — 

according  to  Rule  XI.     (n.) and  in  the  nominative  case   to  are  understood,  etc.     (o.) 

and  of  the  \st  person,  plural  number,  to  agree  with  '■'■You,  he,  and  I,'" — equivalent  to 

we,  a  plural  subject, — according  to  Rale  XI.  {p.)  "  That  Cortes  with,"  etc.,  is  a  clause  used 
as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender,  3d  person  *  *  *  and  in  the  nominative  ca^e  to  "  is,"  according 
to  Rule  I.     (Now  parse  the  -y^ords  separately.) 

Examples  to   bo  Correct3d. 

All  the  liabilitios  to  error  in  regard  to  verbs,  may  be  reduced  to  the  fol- 
lowing heads : — 

1.  Choice  of  verbs.  2.  Choice  of  forms.  S.  Choice  of  auxiliaries. 
4.  Promiscuous  use  of  different  forms  in  the  same  connection.  5.  Im- 
proper omissions  or  substitutions.  6.  Verbs  improperly  made  tran- 
ntive,  intransitive^  or  passive.  7.  Moods  and  tenses.  8.  Persons 
and  numbers.     9.  Participles  and  infinitives. 

In  correcting  the  following  examples,  the  principles  already  given  should  also  be  applied; 
jnd  sometimes  au  example  will  occur  that  must  be  referred  to  the  first  precepts  of  this  eutiie 
section, 

1.   Choice  of  Verbs. 

The  true  or  most  appropriate  verb  should  always  be  selected. 

We  -were  all  setting  round  the  fire.  At  the  last  setting  of  our  legislature. 
He  set  up  a  short  time,  then  lay  himself  down  again.  After  laying  a  while, 
he  raised  up.  He  laid  down  to  take  a  nap.  He  flew  with  his  fomily  to 
America.  They  shall  fly  from  the  wrath  to  come.  All  the  lands  near  tho 
Mississippi  were  overflown.  Can  you  learn  me  to  write  ?  I  waked  early. 
The  thief  illuded  the  police.  He  was  much  effected  by  the  news.  I  spent 
much  time  to  advance  my  interest,  but  affected  nothing.  I  expect  it  rained 
yesterday.  We  suspect  the  trip  will  afford  us  great  pleasure.  I  love  milk 
better  than  coffee.  — like —  Morse  discovered  the  telegraph,  and  Harvey  in- 
vented the  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  garment  was  neatly  sown.  A  verb 
ought  to  agree  with  its  subject,  in  person  and  number.  (Say,  '^  should  agree,^^ 
for  ought  implies  moral  obligation.)  Carry  the  horse  to  water.  Ho  was  raised 
in  the  South.  What  large  rivers  from  the  west  empty  into  tho  Mississippi  ? 
After  dilating  a  while  on  the  subject,  the  learned  judge  took  his  seat.  — expa- 
iiating —  With  Mr.  Headley,  an  event  always  "transpires." — Poe.  The 
queen,  whom  it  highly  imported  that  the  monarch  shoQld  be  at  peace,  acted  the 
part  of  a  mediator.  i  calculate  to  invest  my  money  in  something  else.  — in- 
tend—  or,  expect —  I  didn't  go  to  do  it.  .1  have  made  a  thousand  bushels  of 
Dotatoes  this  year.       I  am  neci\ssitateJ  to  go.       We  were  falling  trees  to  build 


192  VERBS. EXERCISES. 

a  house.  His  property  was  forfeited  to  the  State.  — confiscated—  (Suppose 
you  are  away  from  home,  would  you,  in  your  letters,  speak  of  going  or  of  coming 

home  ?)    Write  for  me  no  more,  for  I  will  certainly .      If  I  can  absent  myself; 

I  will to  see  you.       She  is  now  getting  the  better  of  her  sickness.      He  was 

taken  hold  of  by  a  ruffian,  —seized—  We  were  found  fault  with,  —cen- 
sured— One  of  the  ships  was  lost  sight  of.  And  resolutely  keep  its  laws, 
uncaring  consequences. — Burns.  — not  heeding —  or,  not  fearing —  So  and 
so  got  among  horses,  and  it  was  all  up  with  him. — Tattler.  — began  to  trade  in 
liorses,  and  lost  all  he  had ;  or,  — !xpt  a  coach,  and  soon  became  a  '      ' 


2.   Choice  of  Forma. 

The  true  or  most  appropriate  form  of  the  verb  should  always  be 
selected. 

a.  The  past  indicative  should  not  be  used  as  a  participle. 

6.  The  perfect  participle  should  not  be  used  for  the  past  indicative. 

c.  A  compound  participle  should  not  be  used  as  a  part  of  a  finite  verb. 

He  knowed  more  than  he  said.  The  blacksmith  shoed  my  horse  yesterday. 
He  shewed  me  his  library.  I  clomb  the  tree,  and  my  brother  holp  me.  What 
he  writ,  I  never  read. — Byron.  A  Une  was  drawed  under  it.  She  is  possessed 
of  a  large  estate.  — -possesses —  or,  owns —  She  is  possessed  of  a  very  amiable 
disposition,  —has —  I  have  this  day  parted  possession  with  my  finest  horse. 
— dispossessed  myself  of —  The  accident  was  not  taken  notice  of  — was  not 
noticed.  The  young  aspirant  made  use  of  every  expedient  to  insure  success. 
The  warning  was  not  taken  heed  of  The  landlady  says,  our  nocturnal  carous- 
ings  must  be  put  a  stop  to.  Troubles  in  Kansas  have  not  as  yet  been  put  an 
end  to.  The  book  was  give  to  me.  Had  I  have  known  his  design,  I  should 
not  have  let  him  have  my  horse.  Had  I  known  ....  I  would  not  have  loaned^ 
&c.  Had  I  but  have  staid  at  home.  You  had  not  ought  to  have  done  so. 
— You  ought  not  to  have — or,  should  not  have — 

Loud  quackt  the  ducks.  It  is  a  fixt  fact.  The  hay  was  stackt.  The 
goods  were  shipt  yesterday.  The  want  of  money  has  checkt  trade,  and,  in 
some  instances,  entirely  stopt  it.  Grog  is  whiskey  mixt  with  water.  John 
alit  from  his  horse.  The  wind  swepped  by.  I  stept  in.  Dipt,  equipt,  whipt, 
annext,  attackt,  dropt,  stript,  crusht,  nurst,  elapst,  absorpt,  linkt,  distrest.  Be- 
dropt  with  azure,  jet,  and  gold. —  Gay.  Rather  than  thus  be  overtopt,  would 
you  not  wish  their  laurels  cropt  ? — Swift. 

Thou  didd'st  adore  him.  — didst —  Spirit  of  freedom!  once  on  Phyle's 
brow  thou  satt'st. — Byron.  Thou  mayest — mightest  depart.  How  well  thou 
reaa'nest— reasoa'st,  time  alone  can  show.  Tliou  rememberest — preservst. 
Thou  noticed.st.  — didst  notice.  Thou  indulgedst — indulged'st — indulg'dst. 
And  long  he  try'd,  but  try'd  in  vain.    — tried— 

Waflt  thou  chopping  wood?  (Say,  ''Were  you,''  &c. ;  for,  in  familiar  language, 
the  grave  form8  are  not  becoming.)  Knowest  thou  where  my  books  are  ?  Do 
you  knoWf  ko.  Learns  she  her  lesson  ?  He  readeth  pretty  well.  A  drive  into 
the  country  delighteth  and  invigorates  us.  Tiie  child  had  just  been  falUng 
over  board,  —had  juM  fallenr—  She  is  loving  him.  We  be  all  of  us  from 
York  State.      I  do  not  think  you  be  in  need  of  silk. 

Yoa  might  have  went  yourself.  Mary  has  tore  her  book.  My  coat  is 
completely  wore  out.       Having  swam  the  river,  he  was  took  by  some  Indians. 


VERBS. EXERCISES.  IQS 

He  begun  well,  but  euded  badly.  I  never  seen  any  thing  of  it.  The  win© 
was  all  drank  up,  though  I  drunk  but  little.  Our  candidate  run  well,  though 
he  was  beat.  The  tree  had  fell,  and  all  its  branches  were  broke.  The  apples 
were  shook  off  by  the  wind.  They  done  the  best  they  could.  I  have  done 
written.  — already  written.  I  have  done  done  it.  She  was  chose  on  my 
side.  Somebody  has  took  ray  book.  The  deer  had  ran  into  the  bottom,  and 
swam  across  the  river.  The  language  spoke  in  this  section  of  country,  is  not 
the  best  of  English.      I  seen  the  limb  tore  off  by  the  wind. 

"Wheat  is  now  being  sold  for  a  dollar  a  bushel.  — is  now  selling —  The 
new  capitol  is  now  being  completed.  He  gave  me  an  account  of  all  the  books 
now  being  written  or  published  in  Europe.  My  predictions  are  now  being  ful- 
filled. He  knew  nothing  of  what  was  then  being  done.  The  timbers  are 
now  being  hewed  for  a  new  bridge.  Another  Methodist  church  is  now  being 
built  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city.  The  statutes  were  tlien  being  revised. 
My  coat  is  now  being  made  by  the  tailor.  The  tailor  is  now  making,  &c.  His 
anticipations  are  now  being  realized.  Dramshops  are' now  being  closed  on 
Sundays.  — are  closed —  Here  certain  chemical  mysteries  are  being  secretly 
carried  on  by  some  engineers. — Harper's  Magazine.  More  than  20,000  children 
are  being  gratuitously  educated  in  this  city.  — are  receiving  gratuitous  education — 
The  daughter  is  being  accomplished  at  one  of  the  most  fashionable  schools. 
Two  Irishmen  are  being  tried  for  flghting.  — are  on  trial —  Such  a  poem  as 
this  is  worth  being  committed  to  memory.  — committing —  Whatever  is  worth 
being  done,  is  worth  being  done  well.  The  apple-tree  will  bear  being  pruned 
more,  —^more  pruning.  Such  a  body  can  not  be  overthrown  without  the  cen- 
tre of  gravity  being  lifted.    — without  lifting — 

3.   Choice  of  Auxiliaries. 

(The  following  examples  come  under  both  the  foregoing  heads,  and  may  be 
corrected  according  to  either.) 

We  will  suffer  from  cold,  unless  we  go  better  protected.  The  drowning 
foreigner  said,   "  I  will  be  drowned ;  nobody  shall  help  me."       Will  I  find  you 

at  home?       You find  me  there.       Queen  Isabella  promised  a  pension  to 

the  first  seaman  that  would  discover  land.  (As  if  he  could  discover  it  at  plea- 
sure.) I  left  orders  that  every  one  would  remain  at  his  station.  Shall  he 
find  any  gold  there  ?  (As  if  it  were  in  your  power  to  grant  the  finding.)  Will 
we  find  any  ?  Would  we  hear  a  good  lecture,  ff  we  would  go  ?  Surely  good- 
ness and  mercy  shall  follow  me  aU  the  days  of  my  life,  and  I  will  dwell  in  the 
house  of  the  Lord  forever.  Death  was  threatened  to  the  first  man  who  would 
rebel.  (The  overt  act  was  meant.)  I  would  have  been  much  obhged  to  him, 
if  he  had  have  sent  it.  — had  sent  it.  He  should  be  obliged  to  you,  if  you 
would  assist  him.  On  the  other  hand,  would  they  consult  their  safety,  and 
turn  back,  who  should  blame  them  ?  We  would  be  ruined,  would  they  dis- 
appoint us.  Whoever  will  marry  that  woman,  will  find  her  a  Tartar.  You 
may  be  sure  that  we  will  be  paid,  when  it  will  be  in  his  power.  You  might 
have  known  that  we  would  have  been  paid,  if  the  treasurer  should  have  allowed 
it.  We  believed  all  the  workmen  should  be  paid,  when  our  employer  should 
have  received  his  money.  (Perhaps  belter,  — 'had  received''' — )  I  had  much 
rather  do  it  myself  — would —  I  desired  the  lady  should  walk  in.  Be  that 
as  it  will,  I  shall  not  despair  yet.  — as  it  is —  or,  as  it  may  be —  I  would 
not  be  surprised  to  see  him  any  day.  I  would  think  no  reasonable  man  could 
object  to  such  a  proposition.  I  was  thinking  what  a  happy  life  we  woidd  lead 
together.  Were  I  to  go  with  you,  I  would  get  a  whipping.  In  that  other 
world,  what  reflections  shall  not  probably  arise !  By  relieving  him,  we  will 
do  him  a  great  favor,       I  was  afraid  I  would  lose  all  the  capital  I  bad  invested. 


194  VERBS. — EXERCISES. 

4.  Promiscuous   Use  of  Different  Forms  in  the  Same   Connection. 
The  promiscuous  use  of  different  forms  of  verbs,  in  the  same  connec- 
tion, is  inelegant. 

Educating  is  to  develop  the  faculties  of  the  mind.  To  refrain  from  luxu- 
ries, is  better  than  going  in  debt  for  them.  To  strip  oif  old  habits,  is  being 
flayed  alive.  To  profess  regard,  and  acting  differently,  discovers  a  base  mind. 
Professing  regard,  and  to  act  differently,  discovers  a  base  mind.  So  much  ex- 
planation tends  to  obscure  instead  of  elucidating  the  subject.  — rather  than  to 
elucidate —  or,  and  not  to  elucidate —  ("  It  tended  rather  to  confuse  than  to  en- 
lighten his  understanding." — Macaulay.)  This  had  served  to  increase  instead  of 
alleviating  the  inflammation. — Murray.  We  can  find  the  product  of  two  num- 
bers, by  multiplying  one  of  them  by  the  parts  into  which  we  choose  to  separate 
the  other,  and  then  add  the  products  together.  Fierce  as  he  moved,  his  silver 
shafts  resound.  Spelling  is  easier  than  to  parse  or  cipher.  Scanning  is  to 
divide  poetic  hues  into  their  feet.  To  scan  is  the  dividing  of  poetic  lines  into 
their  feet. 

He  giveth,  and  he  takes  away. — Uarper^s  Magazine.  He  was  playing, 
and  does  yet  play.  Does  he  not  behave  well,  and  gets  his  lessons  as  well  as 
any  other  boy  in  school  ?  Did  you  not  borrow  so  much  of  me,  and  promised 
to  repay  it  the  next  day?  If  these  remedies  be  applied,  and  the  patient  im- 
proves not,  the  case  may  be  considered  hopeless.  If  the  signature  or  indorse- 
ment be  in  the  usual  form,  but  the  party  receiving  it  knows  that  it  is  given  by- 
way of  suretyship,  he  must  prove  the  assent  of  the  parties. — Parsons  on  Con- 
tracts. Thou  who  didst  call  the  Furies  from  the  abyss,  and  round  Orestes  bade 
them  howl  and  hiss. — Byron.  He  comforteth  the  widow,  and  becomes  a  father 
to  the  orphan.  For  their  sake,  human  law  hath  interposed  in  some  countries, 
and  has  endeavored  to  make  good  the  deficiency  of  nature.  He  was  either 
misunderstood,  or  represented  in  a  false  light.     — or  misrepresented. 

5.  Improper  Omissions  or  Substitutions. 

When  the  omission  of  a  verb,  or  the  representing  of  it  by  an  auxi- 
liary word,  would  lead  to  impropriety  or  obscurity,  the  verb  itself  should 
be  used. 

The  winter  is  departing,  and  the  wild-geese  flying  northward.  — are  flying — 
Be  quiet ;  for  neither  he  nor  I  am  disposed  to  harm  you.  — neither  is  he,  nor 
am  I—  A  room  has  been  secured,  and  all  other  preparations  made.  Money 
is  scarce,  and  times  hard.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  great;  but  the 
climate,  nevertheless,  salubrious.  Our  breakfast  was  ready,  and  our  horses 
saddled.  A  doUar  was  oflered  for  it,  but  five  dollars  asked.  The  ground  was 
covered  with  forests,  and  the  ravines  completely  hidden.  I  never  have  and 
never  will  assist  such  a  man.  —have  assisted—  All  those  who  have  or  do 
j)urcha80  any  ot  those  books,  shall  receive  a  present. 

_  As  you  have  made  the  first,  so  you  may  do  the  rest,  —way  make—  The 
intentions  of  some  of  these  philosophers  might,  and  probably  were,  good.  His 
sermons  must  have  and  certainly  should  produce  a  reformation.  Keither  does 
ho  nor  any  other  persons  suspect  so  much  dissimulation.  No  man  can  bo  more 
v/retchod  than  I.  —than  I  am.  I  can  not  go,  but  I  want  to.  —to  go.  (Such 
expressions,  I  think,  are  sometimes  allowable,  in  light  colloquial  language ;  at 
least,  the  best  authors  sometimes  use  tiiera.)  Such  a  law,  I  believe,  has  been 
enacted;  but  if  it  has  not,  I  think  it  ought  to.  I  have  not  subscribed,  nor  do  I 
inteud  to.  Tins  must  be  my  excuse  for  seeing  a  letter  which  neither  inelina- 
tiou  nor  time  prompted  mo  to.—  Washington.      IIo  does  pursue  the  course  many 


VERBS. — KXEKCISES,  1^5 

Others  have  done.  — have  pursued.  No  one  ever  sustained  such  mortifications 
as  I  have  done  to-day.  I  shall  persuade  others  to  take  the  same  remedies  for 
their  cure  that  I  have.  A  shower  of  rain  refreshes  vegetation  more  than  can 
be  done  by  ever  so  much  watering. 

6.    Verbs  Imprajjerly  made  Transitive^  Intransitive,  or  Passive. 

Verbs  should  not  be  needlessly  made  transitive,  intransitive,  or  passive, 
contrary  to  their  general  use,  or  contrary  to  analogy. 

He  had  fled  his  native  land.  And  Pharaoh  and  his  host  pursued  after  them. 
San  Francisco  connects  with  the  sea,  by  an  entrance  one  mile  wide.  A  verb 
signifying  actively,  governs  the  accusative. — Adam^s  Lat.  Gram.  Any  word 
that  will  conjugate,  is  a  verb.  I  must  premise  with  two  or  three  oircumptances. 
Go,  flee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judea.  It  now  repents  me  that  I  did  not 
go.  They  finally  agreed  the  matter  among  themselves.  Well,  I  suppose,  we 
nre  agreed  on  this  point.  Such  as  prefer,  may  rise  from  their  seats.  — prefer 
in  do  so —  Sit  thee  down,  and  rest  thee.  We  had  just  entered  into  the  house. 
He  is  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  office. 

We  are  swerved  far  from  the  policy  of  our  fatlinrs.  My  friend  is  returned— 
is  arrived.  All  the  flowers  are  perished.  His  time  of  imprisonment  was 
nearly  elapsed.  He  is  possessed  of  great  talents.  The  tumult  was  then  en- 
tirely ceased.  A  few  were  deserted,  and  more  killed.  This  is  true  power : 
it  approaches  men  to  Gods.  She  is  become  more  fretful  than  she  used  to  be. 
Brutus  and  Cassius  are  rid  like  madmen  through  the  gates  of  Rome.  His 
profits  will  diminish  from  yours.  She  sat  herself  down  on  the  sofa.  He  in- 
gratiates with  some  by  traducing  others.  His  estate  will  not  allow  of  such 
extravagance.  You  shall  not  want  for  any  thing  while  I  have  it.  The  car- 
riage is  so  full  as  not  to  admit  of  another  passenger.  I  will  consider  of  the 
matter,  and  let  you  know  by  morning.  What  is  Uvi  difference  of  meaning  f  "  To 
eat  an  apple  ;"  "  To  eat  of  an  apple." 

7.  Moods  and  Tenses. 

1.  Every  verb  should  be  in  the  mood  and  tense  best  adapted  to  ex- 
press the  meaning  intended. 

2.  In  mood  and  tense,  all  the  verbs  of  a  sentence  should  be  consist- 
ent with  one  another,  and  also  with  the  otlier  words  of  the  sentence. 

a.  The  indicative  mood  expresses  matter  of  fact,  or  what  is  assumed 
as  such. 

h.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  to  express  what  is  both  doubtful  and 
future,  or  a  mere  wish,  supposition,  or  conclusion. 

c.  The  subjunctive  mood  sometimes  has  the  sense  of  the  past  or  the 
pluperfect  potential,  but  it  should  not  take  the  place  of  these  forms  whei-e 
they  would  be  more  elegant. 

d.  The  infinitivp  leans  to  the  noun,  and  most  frequently  expresses  the 
purpose,  or  shows  the  respect  wherein;  the  participle  rather  resembles  the 
adjective  in  sense  and  construction. 

e.  Universal  truths  are  expressed  in  the  present  tense,  regardless  of  the 
construction,  or  the  other  words  used. 

She  were  as  good  buried,  iis  married  to  him.  — might  as  well  be — •  T  had  bet- 
ter staid  where  I  was.  — might  have  better —  You  had  better  have  let  those 
wasps  alone.  — might  better —  He  had  better  remain  on  the  small  farm, 
Ji  would  be,  &c.       Bad  bovs  had  better  be  without  too  much  money.     — shou'4 

9* 


196  VERBS. EXERCISES. 

not  he  indulged  with—  Tho  Glenn  family  will  try  and  requite  the  favor.  If 
he  acquires  riches,  they  will  corrupt  his  mind.  I  shall  go  into  the  country  to- 
day, ualess  it  raias.  If  he  speak  only  to  display  his  talents,  he  is  unworthy  of 
attention.  I  wish  I  was  at  home.  He  talked  to  me  as  if  I  was  a  widow. 
Should  you  como  up  this  way,  and  I  am  still  here,  you  need  not  be  assured  how 
glad  I  shall  be  to  see  you. — Byron's  Letters.  I  would  be  surprised  if  this  mar- 
riage will  take  piace.  Make  haste,  lest  the  dinner  cools.  Beware  that  thou 
sinaest  not.  If  I  am  at  home,  I  will  go  with  you.  If  he  be  safe,  I  am  con- 
tent. If  the  book  be  in  my  library,  I  will  send  it  immediately.  If  the  book 
is  found  in  my  Ubrary,  I  will  send  it  immediately.  If  the  book  was  in  my 
library,  I  would  send  it.  If  the  book  were  in  my  hbrary,  some  one  must  have 
borrowed  it.  See  that  every  thing  is  put  in  the  right  place.  (Right  or  wrong, 
depending  on  the  sense.)  I  can  not  tell  whether  the  opossum  be  dead  or  alive. 
Will  you  tell  us  who  they  be  ?  Try  I  will,  whatsoever  oppose.  (Say,  "o^- 
poses/'  if  opposition  is  considered  certain;  '^  may  oppose,^'  if  doubtful.)  He  in- 
deed would  be  a  useful  policeman,  that  should  detect  all  the  rogues  that  were 
found  in  every  part  of  this  city. 

If  the  hand  is  removed,  the  air  immediately  fills  the  vessel.  If. . .  .he. . . . 
will  immediately  fill —  or,  When  the  hand  is  removed. . .  .fills,  &c.  (I  think  that 
"yi&"  might  also  be  allowed  to  stand  with  "  &e  removed,'''  and  that  it  would 
make  the  expression  merely  a  little  more  spirited.)  If  a  man  smites  his  serv- 
ant, and  he  dies,  he  shall  surely  be  put  to  death.     — smite and  the  servant 

die,  the  man  shall —  Though  he  be  poor  and  helpless  now,  you  may  rest  as- 
sured that  he  will  not  remain  so.  He  will  maintaiu  his  suit,  though  it  costs 
him  his  whole  estate.  (Here  tho  latter  verb  impUes,  or  should  imply,  both  doubt 
and  future  time.)  Though  a  liar  speaks  the  truth,  he  will  hardly  be  believed. 
If  he  was  to  be  elected,  he  would  disgrace  the  parly.  — were  elected —  Sup- 
pose only  one  side  with  the  adjacent  angles  were  given,  how  would  you  find  the 
other  parts  ?  I  will  keep  this,  provided  there  be  no  better  one  in  your  store. 
The  work  will  be  carried  on  vigorously,  until  it  be  completed.  These  hypo- 
crites would  deceive,  if  it  was  possible,  the  Deity  himself.  If  any  member  ab- 
sents himself,  he  shall  pay  a  dollar  for  the  use  of  the  Society.  The  mother 
hurried  her  httle  children  up  a  ladder  for  safety,  in  case  she  was  overcome  by 
the  bear. — Pioneer  History. 

Saxony  was  left  defenceless,  and,  if  it  was  conquered,  might  be  plundered. 
— if  it  should  he  conquered —  Nay.  Father  Abraham,  but  if  one  went  unto 
them  from  the  dead,  &c.  If  they  did  not  believe  Moses,  they  will  not  believe, 
though  one  rose  from  the  dead.  — rise —  Though  self-government  produce 
some  uneasiness,  it  is  light  when  compared  with  the  consequences  of  vicious 
indulgence.  No  one  engages  in  that  business,  unless  he  aim  at  reputation,  or 
hopes  for  some  singular  advantage.  Micaiah  said,  "  If  thou  certainly  return  in 
peace,  then  hath  not  the  Lord  spoken  by  me."  — thou  return —  In  moving 
bodies,  if  the  quantities  of  matter  are  equal,  the  momenta  will  be  as  the  veloci- 
ties. If  tiie  body  A  be  equal  to  the  body  B,  but  A  has  twice  the  velocity  of  B, 
then  A  has  twice  as  much  motion  as  B.  If  a  telescope  is  inverted,  objects 
seen  through  it  will  be  diminished.  If  a  telescope  be  inverted,  objects  seen 
through  it  are  dimini.shed.  If  the  two  mirrors  were  separated,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  number  of  images  will  be  increased.  Was  there  not  another  evil,  I 
would  object.— P.  Henry.  If  the  new  Constitution  takes  place,  the  duties  on 
imported  articles  will  go  into  the  general  treasury. — A.  Hamilton.  A  corpora- 
tion is  liable  for  the  tortuous  acts  of  its  agent,  though  he  were  not  appointed  un- 
der seal. — Parsons  on  Oontracts.  (Perhaps  allowable ;  though  I  should  rather 
have  said,  "«;e»  if  he  was  not  appointed,"  or,  ^Hhough  he  may  not  have  been 
appointed,'"  &c.)  If  the  debtor  pays  tho  debt,  he  shall  be  discharged. — Id.  But, 
if  lie  have  moved  out  of  the  State,  the  demand  may  be  made  at  his  former  resi- 
doijco, — Id, 


VERBS. EXERCISES.  197 

Tne  Lord  hath  given,  find  the  Lord  hath  taken  away.  I  know  the  family 
more  than  twenty  years.  Knowing  him  for  many  years,  I  confidently  recom- 
•nend  him.  They  coutinuo  with  us  now  three  days.  All  the  family  have  been 
much  indebted  for  their  present  greatness,  to  their  noble  ancestor.  In  the  city 
of  Mexico  are  preserved,  for  hundreds  of  years,  relics  of  the  Aztec  monarchy. 
I  am  now  two  years  in  St.  Louis,  He  has  lately  lost  his  only  daughter.  (Al- 
lowable, if  there  is  also  reference  to  the  existing  bereavement.)  This  stylo  has 
been  formerly  much  in  fashion.  He  that  was  dead,  sat  up,  and  began  to  speak. 
I  will  pay  him  what  I  l>ave  promised  him  when  I  was  with  him.  The  work- 
men will  finish  the  work  by  midsummer.  Next  Christmas  I  shall  be  at  school 
a  year.  This  was  four  years  ago  next  August. — liejyort  of  Normal  School  Con- 
vention. It  has  been  a  common  prejudice,  that  persons  thus  instructed  had 
their  attention  too  much  divided,  and  could  know  nothing  perfectly. — lb.  I 
have  been  frequently  asked  what  we  teachers  did  at  our  meetings. — B).  (J.  e., 
at  all  times.)  I  should  be  obliged  to  him,  if  he  will  gratify  me.  Ye  will  not 
come  unto  me,  that  ye  might  have  life.  It  is  proper  and  humane  to  wear  a 
habit  suitable  to  mourning,  while  those  we  loved  and  honored  are  mouldering  in 
the  grave.  It  will  be  useless  for  you  to  raise  so  many  grapes,  unless  you  knew 
how  to  make  wine. 

The  most  glorious  hero  that  ever  desolated  nations  might  have  mouldered 
into  oblivion,  did  not  some  historian  take  him  into  favor, — Irving.  If  I  lend 
yc'U  my  horse,  I  should  have  to  borrow  one  myself.  I  thought  it  had  been  you 
that  was  bidding.  Yet,  if  I  should  pay  his  debts,  and  get  employment  for  him, 
he  will  not  do  any  better  in  future.  (Say,  ^^  would  do"  if  you  refer  simply  to 
your  own  conclusion;  but  I  tliink  ^^wlU  do"  may  stand,  if  you  mean  to  express 

greater  certainty  in  regard  to  his  conduct.)      To-morrow Saturday.      If  wo 

would  examine  into  the  springs  of  action  in  the  prudent  and  the  imprudent,  we 
siiall  find  that  they  move  upon  very  diflerent  principles.  I  was  going  out  to 
tea  at  dear  mother's  to-morrow. — Mrs.  Oaudle.  (Allowable;  for  it  expresses 
merely  a  past  determination.)  I  told  him  that  the  cars  leave  in  half  an  hour — 
left  in  half  an  hour.  — would  leave —  (The  first  expression  is  probably  allow- 
able, as  referring  to  an  established  order  of  things, — to  a  certain,  punctual,  daily 
occurrence.)  As  I  never  saw  a  play  before,  it  was  very  entertaining  to  me. 
All  church  members  should  be  pure  in  heart,  tliat  they  might  not  be  a  reproaoh 
to  Christianity.  When  I  shaU  have  heard  from  you,  I  will  write  immediately. 
As  soon  as  he  shall  bring  the  horses,  we  shall  leave.  When  the  workmen 
completed  our  new  house,  wo  removed  into  it.  As  soon  as  our  new  house  had 
been  completed,  we  removed  into  it. 

Our  teacher  told  us  that  the  air  had  weight.  Prof.  Silliman's  experiments 
plainly  proved  that  the  gas  was  combustible.  He  showed  clearly  what  powers 
belonged  to  Congress.  He  insisted  that  the  Constitution  was  certain  and  fixed, 
and  contained  the  permanent  will  of  the  people,  and  was  the  supreme  law,  and 
could  be  revoked  only  by  the  authority  that  made  it.— Kent  Keats  said,  that 
beauty  was  truth,  and  truth  was  beauty.  The  doctor  said  that  fever  always 
produced  thirst.  Plato  maintained  that  the  Deity  was  the  soul  of  the  world. 
He  remarked  that  the  word  had  several  diiFerent  meanings.  He  insisted  that 
the  article  was  a  mere  adjective.  If  T  should  use  the  clause,  "  When  spring 
returns,"  you  would  perceive  that  something  more  was  wanting  to  make  a  state- 
ment. Without  the  name,  I  could  not  liave  told  that  this  was  a  picture  of 
him.  1  asked  the  quack  whether  calomel  was  not  his  remedy  for  every  dis- 
ease. He  knew  not  that  I  was  a  foreigner.  When  I  studied  the  classics,  I 
observed  that  many  a  moral  lurked  in  the  mythology  of  the  ancients.  I  have 
always  thought  that  little  was  ever  gained  by  marrying  for  wealth.  A  lato 
writer  on  horses  supposed  that  a  horse  could  perform  the  labor  of  six  men.  He 
«aid  it  was  a  great  misfortune,  that  men  of  letters  seldom  looked  on  the  practical 


198  VERBS. EXERCISES. 

side  of  life.      He  said  it  was  125  miles  from  St.  Louis  to  Jefferson  City.      Where 
did  you  say  the  church  -was  ?  for  I  wish  to  hear  its  minister. 

At  Athens,  he  who  killed  another  accidentally,  was  not  deemed  guilty.  He 
13  supposed  to  be  bom  about  three  centuries  ago.  To  be  disappointed  by  him 
now,  would  have  broken  her  heart.  I  very  much  wished  to  have  gone,  but 
mother  could  not  spare  me.  We  hoped  to  have  had  the  pleasure  of  a  visit 
from  you.  I  intended  to  have  sent  your  horse  home  yesterday,  that  you  might 
not  have  been  obliged  to  send  for  hira  yourself.  I  feared  I  should  have  lost  it 
before  I  reached  home.  We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have 
done.  It  would  liave  given  me  great  pleasure  to  see  you.  (Allowable.) 
How  could  you  forbear  to  have  punished  him?  It  was  a  pity  I  was  the  only 
child;  for  my  mother  had  fondness  of  heart  enough  to  have  spoiled  a  dozen. — 
Irving.  I  was  then  disposed  to  have  given  twice  as  much.  I  was  under  no 
obligation  to  have  adhered  to  a  party  that  deserted  its  own  principles.  The 
furniture  was  to  have  been  sold  at  auction.  When  I  saw  into  her  coquetry, 
thinks  I  to  myself  I  will  let  you  know  that  you  are  not  the  only  woman  in  the 
world.  (Say,  '^thought  I  to  myself;''^  yet  '^thinks,''  as  a  light,  colloquial  ex- 
pression, is  not  without  good  authority  to  sustain  it.)  Well,  says  I,  there  is, 
after  all,  much  genuine  goodness  and  solid  happiness  in  the  world.  What  is  the 
difference  in  meaning  f  "Achilles  is  said  to  be  buried  at  the  foot  of  this  hill;" 
"Achilles  is  said  to  have  been  buried  at  the  foot  of  this  hill." 

8.  Persons  and  Numbers. 
Every  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  in  person  and  number. 

I  called,  but  you  was  not  at  home.  Was  you  there?  My  outlays  is 
greater  than  my  income.  I  says  to  him,  Be  your  own  friend.  He  dare  not 
say  it  to  my  face.  Such  a  temper  need  to  be  corrected.  You  who  has  earned 
it,  is  best  entitled  to  it.  Thou  who  are  the  author  of  life,  can  restore  it.  0 
thou  pale  orb  that  silent  shines. — Burns.  Thou  art  the  friend  that  hast  often 
relieved  me.  Thou  art  a  friend  indeed  that  has  so  often  relieved  me.  Thou 
can  pardon  us  if  thou  will.  That  which  yourself  has  asked.  'Tis  so  ;  myself 
has  seen  it.  I,  who  has  done  most  of  the  work,  should  receive  most  of  the 
pay.  The  molasses  are  excellent.  His  pulse  are  beating  too  fast.  If  a  man 
have  built  a  house,  the  house  is  his.  Unless  better  bail  have  been  given,  he 
shall  not  be  set  at  liberty.  There  are  not  many  children  in  this  city  whoso 
education  have  been  entirely  neglected.  Has  the  horses  been  fed  ?  What 
signifies  fair  words  without  good  deeds?  What  have  become  of  your  promises  ? 
What  avails  the  best  maxims  if  we  do  not  live  suitably  to  them  ?  On  each 
side  of  the  river  was  ridges  of  hills.  Not  more  than  one  man  was  hurt.  Prom 
this  Indian  girl  has  sprung  some  of  the  first  families  of  Virginia.  Six  is  too 
many  to  ride  in  the  canoe  at  one  time.  Hence  comes  so  many  unhappy 
marriages. 

There  seems  to  be  no  others  included.  There  was  more  than  one  of  us. 
There's  two  or  three  of  us.  There  appears  to  have  been  some  buffaloes  here 
last  night.  There  was  no  memoranda  kept  of  the  sales.  The  victuals  was 
cold.  The  wages  was  paid.  There  is  no  tidings.  Th  have  two  sounds.  Ph 
are  pronounced  like  /.  In  the  following  words,  sion  are  pronounced  zhun. 
Boys  are  a  common  noun.  Here  as  well  as  are  used  in  the  sense  of  a  con- 
junction. 

Every  one  of  the  witne.sses  testify  to  the  same  thing.  Everv  body  are  dis- 
posed to  help  hira.  Evoiy  twenty-four  hours  affords  to  us  day  and  night. 
Every  ten  tens  makes  one  hundred.  Many  an  Indian  were  laid  low  on  that 
day.  Not  one  of  them  whom  tliou  sees  clothed  in  purple,  are  completely  happy. 
One,  added  to  nineteen,  make  twenty.       Nothing  but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits 


VERBS. EXERCISES.  IQ^ 

delight  some  persons.  Enough  of  the  com  and  potatoes  have  been  sold,  to  pay 
the  debt.  The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain.  Each  one  of  us  have 
as  much  as  he  can  do.  Each  one  of  the  vowels  represent  several  sounds. 
Either  one  of  the  schools  afford  facihties  sufficiently  good.  Neither  of  us  have 
a  dollar  left.  Neither  of  these  hypotheses  are  well  founded,  though  they  have 
each  of  them  their  advocates.  Which  one  of  these  soldiers  were  wounded  at 
Monterey  ?  A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  charm  the  eye.  Six  months'  in- 
terest are  due  on  the  bonds.  The  sum  of  twenty  thousand  dollars  have  been 
expended  on  this  bridge,  A  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  revenue  is  now  in 
the  treasury.  The  spirit  of  our  forefathers  still  animate  their  descendants. 
The  expense  for  repairs  render  it  necessary  to  raise  the  tuition.  This  poem, 
together  with  those  which  accompany  it,  were  written  several  years  ago.  The 
mother,  with  her  daughter,  have  spent  the  summer  here.  The  captain,  with 
most  of  the  other  officers,  were  killed.     The  captain  and,  &c. 

y*T  are  not  the  first  one  that  have  been  deceived  in  the  same  way.  She  is 
one  oithe  women  that  is  always  hankering  after  towns,  crowds,  and  parties.  He 
is  one  of  the  preachers  that  belongs  to  the  church  militant,  and  takes  consider- 
able interest  in  politics.  The  book  is  one  of  the  best  that  ever  was  written. 
Such  accommodations  as  was  necessary,  was  provided.  Goethe  and  Schiller 
are  men  of  such  genius  as  have  but  seldom  appeared  in  the  human  race.  It  is 
either  the  rain  or  the  sun  that  cause  this  corn  to  grow  so  fast.  It  is  the  rain 
and  the  sun  that this  corn  to  grow  so  fast. 

A  committee  were  appointed  to  exa:niue  the  accounts.  The  committee  dis- 
agrees. In  France,  the  peasantry  goes  barefoot,  while  the  middle  sort  makes 
use  of  wooden  shoes.  The  greater  part  of  the  audience  was.  pleased.  The 
greater  part  of  the  exports  consist  of  cotton.  The  public  is  respectfully  in- 
vited. The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  up  the  channel.  The  jury  was  not  unan- 
imous. All  the  world  is  spectators  of  your  conduct.  The  regiment  consist 
of  a  thousaad  men.  There  go  a  gang  of  deer.  The  legislature  have  adjourned. 
Never  were  any  other  nation  so  infatuated  as  the  Jewish  people.  Generation 
after  generation  pass  away.  The  company  were  chartered  last  winter.  (Al- 
ways consider  carefully  whether  the  reference  is  to  the  individuals  composing 
the  group,  or  to  the  group  itself.  There  is  plainly  a  difference  between  the  two 
in  regard  to  states  or  actions.)  The  corporation  is  individually  responsible. 
At  least  half  of  the  members  was  absent.  The  higlier  class  looks  with  scorn  on 
those  below  them.  Our  youth  is  not  everywhere  properly  educated.  The 
immber  of  inhabitants  in  tlie  United  States  now  amount  to  thirty-two  millions. 
The  Society  hold  their  meetings  on  Fridays,  The  House  were  called  to  order. 
The  railroad  company  was  rather  uneasy — were  rather  unsafe.  The  multitude 
eagerly  pursues  pleasure.  This  sort  of  men  is  always  sensitive.  Men  of  this 
sort,  &c.  Five  pair  was  sold.  Fifty  head  was  drowned.  Our  horse  was 
routed  with  great  slaughter  by  the  Russian  foot.  Our  cavalry. . .  .infantry. 
An  exploring  party  that  was  sent  to  the  north,  were  appalled  by  the  aspect  ol 
the  Appalachian  chain,  and  pronouuced  the  mountains  impassable. — Geo.  Ban- 
croft. (Structure  seldom  found,  but  allowable,  I  think ;  for  the  one  verb  refers 
to  the  party  as  a  whole,  and  the  other  refers  rather  to  the  individuals  com- 
posing it.) 

8  apples  is  no  part  of  1 2  pears.  8  are  what  part  of  12  ?  (If  such  a  subject 
is  viewed  as  an  abstract  whole,  the  verb  should  bo  singular ;  if  viewed  in  refer- 
ence to  the  composing  units,  or  to  concrete  individuals,  the  verb  should  bo  plu- 
ral.) As  2  are  to  4,  so  4  are  to  8,  4  times  8  is  32. — Bullions.  If  |  of  a  sheep  is 
worth  I  of  a  calf;  and  iff  of  a  calf  is  worth  |  of  a  hog,  how  many  sheep  are  8 
hogs  worth  ?  (When  a  numeral  subject  must  be  read  plurally,  I  should  prefer 
the  plural  verb.)  What  part  of  1  A.  is  18  R.  18  P.  3  sq.  yds.  '?—D.  P.  Colbnni. 
([should  rather  say,  ^^are;"  for,  though  such  a  subject  must  be  viewed  as  a 


200  VERBS. EXERCISES. 

whole,  it  does  not  therefore  necessarily  require  the  verb  to  be  singular;  as,  "The 
mule,  horse,  and  cow,  \  were  sold  for  $200."  Furthermore,  the  subject  must  be 
read  plv/rally. 

Mary  and  her  cousin  was  at  our  house  last  week.  Neither  Mary  nor  her 
cousin  were  at  our  house  last  week.  When  sickness,  infirmity,  or  misfortune, 
afflict  us,  the  sincerity  of  friendship  is  proved.  So  much  of  abiUty  and  merit 
are  seldom  found.  Enough  ingenuity  and  labor  has  been  bestowed,  to  make 
the  machine  a  good  one.  When  the  memories  and  hopes  of  youth  is  embittered 
by  past  misfortuues,  future  happiness  and  usefulness  becomes  uncertain.  Man's 
happiness  or.  misery  are,  in  a  great  measure,  put  into  his  own  hands.  Time 
and  tide  waiTs  for  no  man.  What  signifies  the  care  and  counsel  of  preceptors, 
when  youth  think  they  have  ito  need  of  assistance  ?  Wisdom,  virtue,  and 
happiness,  dwells  with  the  golden  mediocrity.  The  planetary  system,  bound- 
less space,  and  immense  ocean,  affacts  the  mind  with  sensations  of  astonishment. 
In  all  her  movements,  there  is  grace  and  dignity.  And  so  was  also  you  dtid  I. 
Her  beauty,  intelligence,  and  amiability,  was  praised  even  by  her  own  sex. 
Four  and  two  is  six,  and  one  is  seven.  John,  you,  and  I,  am  going  to  visit  my 
uncle.  The  legality  and  utility  of  this  law  has  never  been  called  in  question. 
Hill  and  dale  doth  boast  thy  blessing.  What  is  the  gender,  person,  and  num- 
ber of  the  following  words?  In  unity  con.sists  the  welfare  and  happiness  of 
every  society. 

There  was  not  a  little  wit  and  sarcasm  in  his  reply.  There  is  a  right  and  a 
wrong  in  human  actions.  There  was  a  man  and  a  woman  on  our  ship,  who 
were  natives  of  Borneo.  There  seems  to  be  war  and  disturbance  in  Kansas. 
Out  of  the  same  mouth  proceedeth  blessing  and  cursing.  On  the  same  square 
has  since  been  budt  a  large  hotel  and  a  museum — a  large  warehouse  and  store. 
Hence  comes  the  early  decay  and  misery  of  such  persons.  Both  vocal  and  in  - 
strumental  music  was  heard  every  night.  This  and  that  house  belongs  to  him. 
in  every  room  there  was  a  large  and  a  small  bed.  In  him  were  happily  blended 
true  dignity  with  gentleness  of  manner. 

Either  Thomas  or  George  have  to  stay  at  home.  The  violin  or  the  banjo, 
played  by  some  merry  old  negro,  beguile  the  summer  evenings.  Neither  the 
syntax  nor  the  general  scope  of  the  paragraph  are  obvious.  Neither  Holmes, 
Forbes,  nor  Jenkins,  were  classmates  of  mine.  When  or,  nor,  or  as  well  as, 
connect  the  nominatives,  &c.  The  vanity,  the  ambition,  the  pride,  or  the  sen- 
sitiveness of  some  men,  keep  them  always  in  trouble.  Luxurious  living  and 
excessive  pleasure  begets  a  languor  and  satiety  that  destroys  all  enjoyment. 
•'  The  Sword,  the  Needle,  and  the  Pen,"  have  been  selected  by  her  as  the  sub- 
i'jct  of  her  composition.  It  is  honor,  false  honor,  that  produce  so  many  quar- 
rels. What  black  despair,  what  horror  fill  his  mind  1 — .Murray.  That  dis- 
tinguished patriot  and  statesman  have  retired  from  public  life.      To  be  moderate 

in  our  views,  and  to  proceed  temperately ^the  best  ways  to  insure  success. 

To  be  of  pure  and  humble  mind,  to  exercise  benevolence  toward  others,  and  to 
cultivate  piety  toward  God,  is  the  sure  means  of  becoming  happy.  *  To  livo 
Boberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  are  required  of  all  men.  To  do  unto  all  men 
as  we  would  that  they,  under  similar  circumstances,  should  do  unto  us,  consti- 
tute the  great  principle  of  virtue.  To  be  old  and  destitute,  are  truly  deplorable. 
To  possess  true  merit  and  yet  be  humble  and  obliging,  are  the  true  way  to  gain 
the  esteem  of  the  world.  To  buy  such  a  lot,  and  build  such  a  house  upon  it, 
require  money.  That  it  is  our  duty  to  relieve  wretchedness  and  check  oi)pres- 
sion,  admit  not  of  any  doubt.  That  a  beUe  should  be  vain,  or  a  fop  ignorant, 
are  not  to  he  woudoi-ed  at. 

Every  person  are  hereby  notified  to  pay  his  or  her  taxes.      All  persons 

Ouiir  taxes.  (It  is  sometimes  better  to  change  the  subject  than  to  change  the 
verb.)       The  horse,  saddle,  and  bridle,  was  sold  for  $100.     Tlie  horse,  with  the 


VERBS. EXERCISES.  201 

sad'Ue,  &c.  Every  one  of  these  houses  have  been  lately  built.  Great  pains 
lias  been  taken  to  make  the  work  accurate,  Grreat  care,  &c.  The  sagacity  and 
learning  of  that  boy  surpasses  the  rest.  In  sagacity  and  learning,  that  boy,  &c. 
At  the  camp-meetiug  were  all  manner  of  folks  and  viands.  — all  kinds —  The 
doctors'  and  mothers'  giving  calomel  for  every  little  illness,  is  one  cause  of  so 
many  puny  women  and  children.  The  practice  of  giving  calomel,  &c.  There  is 
an  elegance  and  simplicity  in  Addison's  style,  that  will  always  please.  — an 
elegance,  as  well  as  a  simplicity —  or,  an  elegance,  a  simplicity,  in —  The  clerk, 
as  well  as  the  captain,  own  the  entire  boat.  — and —  He,  and  not  I,  am 
responsible.  I,  and  not  he,  is  responsible.  Not  honor,  but  emoluments,  have 
induced  him  to  accept  the  offer.  Economy,  as  well  as  industry,  are  necessary 
to  make  us  wealthy.  The  land,  as  well  as  the  personal  property,  were  sold 
at  auction. 

Books,  and  not  pleasure,  occupies  his  mind.  Pleasure,  and  not  books,  oc- 
cupy his  mind.  Not  honor,  but  emoluments,  has  induced  him  to  accept  the 
offer.      Not  only  the  sails,  but  also  the  mainmast,  were  torn  away  by  the  storm. 

He,  not  less  than  you,  deserve  punishment.       He,  and  his  brother  too,  

in  the  battle  of  Bueua  Vista.       The  fother,  and  the  son  also,  imprisoned 

for  many  years.  No  one  but  yourself  and  the  lecturer  believe  such  doctrines. 
Nothing,  save  the  chimneys  of  the  boat,  were  visible.  {Are  both  the  following 
sentences  correct  ?  "  Happiness,  honor,  yea,  life  itselfj  are  sacrificed  in  the  pursuit 
of  riches ;"  "Happiness,  honor,  yea,  life  itself  is  sacrificed  in  the  pursuit  of  riches." 
What  is  the  difference  in  meaning  ?)  Every  tall  tree  and  every  steeple  were 
blown  down.  Every  leaf,  every  twig,  and  every  drop  of  water,  teem  with 
delighted  existence.  Every  man's  heart  and  temper  is  productive  of  much  in- 
ward joy  or  misery.  Every  person  and  every  occurrence  were  viewed  in  the 
most  unf  ivorable  light.  Every  seven  days  makes  a  week.  No  wife,  no  mother, 
and  no  child,  were  there  to  comfort  him.  No  lazy  boy  or  girl  love  their  books. 
Every  skiff  and  canoe  were  loaded  almost  to  the  water's  edge.  Here  lie  buried 
every  chief  and  every  warrior  of  the  tribe. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  and  force,  one  or  more  words  is  sometimes  omitted. 
Neither  beauty,  wealth,  nor  talents,  was  injurious  to  his  modesty.  Whether 
one  or  more  persons  was  concerned  in  the  transaction,  does  not  appear.  Neither 
he  nor  you  was  mentioned.  Either  thou  or  I  art  much  mistaken.  Neither 
he  nor  I  intends  to  be  present  Either  you  or  James  have  spilt  my  ink.  Either 
tliey  or  I  are  responsible.  Neither  thou  nor  I  art  to  blame.  Neither  tliou  a/rt 
lo  blame,  nor  am  I.  The  forest,  or  the  hunting-grounds,  was  deemed  the  prop- 
erty of  the  tribe.  (Here  '' forest'"  seems  to  be  rejected  for  the  more  appropriate 
term  ^^hunting-grounds,'"  which,  therefore,  becomes  the  nominative  to  the  verb 
-'•was,''''  and  this  should  accordingly  be  "iwere.")  Lafayette  Place,  or  Gardens, 
occupy  several  acres.  (Here  "  Gardens'"  is  merely  parenthetical.)  Neither 
the  potatoes  nor  the  corn  are  as  good  as  usual.  (Make  the  verb  agree  with  the 
noare.gt  nominative  or  the  most  important.)  Riding  on  horseback,  or  rowing  a 
skiff,  are  good  exercises.  His  food  were  locusts  and  wild  honey.  (What  am  I 
oliiefly  speaking  o^ — his  food,  or  locusts  and  wild  honey  ?)  The  quarrels  of 
lovers  is  a  renewal  of  love.  The  difference  between  8  and  12  are  4.  Eight 
npples  is  the  difference  between  twelve  apples  and  twenty.  Eive  dimes  is  half 
a  dollar.  The  timber  are  walnut,  elm,  mulberry,  and  linden.  — is —  or,  con- 
sists of —       A  great  cause  of  sickness  in  cities  are  lilthiness  and  bad  food. 

Two  parallel  horizontal  Unes  is  the  sign  of  equality.  The  sign  of  equality 
are  two  parallel  horizontal  lines.  — consists  of —  First,  ascertain  what  is  the 
texture,  color,  and  weight  ?  The  few  dollars  which  he  owes  me,  is  a  matter 
of  small  consequence.  Twelve  single  things,  viewed  as  an  aggregate,  is  called 
a  dozen.  Divers  philosophers  hold  that  the  lips  is  parcel  of  the  mind.— Shak. 
Said  the  burning  CaniJle,  "  Mj  use  and  beauty  is  my  deatli."  Virtue  and 
mutual  confidence  is  the  soul  of  friendship.       To  do  good  to  them  that  hate  ua, 


202  VERBS. EXEUCISES. 

and  on  no  occasion  to  seek  revenge the  duty  of  a  Christian.       Temperance, 

more  than  medicines,  are  the  proper  means  of  curing  many  diseases.  What  a 
fortune  does  the  thick  lips  owe,  if  he  can  carry  her  thus. — SliaJc.  (Proper  ;  for 
"  thick  lips''  is  here  put  for  the  Moor  Othello.)  Here  is  the  Republican,  the 
Herald,  and  the  Leader. — Newspaper-hoy.  (Proper ;  for  the  design  is  to  keep 
the  objects  distinct.)  On  a  sudden,  off  breaks  the  limb,  and  down  tumbles 
negro,  raccoon,  and  all.  (Proper;  for  the  design  is  to  represent  the  objects  as 
most  intimately  united — so  intimately  that  they  may  appear  as  but  one  thing.) 
Proper,  or  not?  "  A  coach  and  six  is  in  our  time  never  seen,  except  as  a  part  of 
some  pageant." — Macaulay.  "  Two  thousand  a  year  was  a  large  revenue  for  a 
barrister." — Id. 

9.  Participles  and  Infinitives. 

1.  The  participle  or  the  infinitive  should  never  be  so  used  as  to  make 
the  sentence  clumsy,  obscure,  or  ambiguous. 

2.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  omitted  after  the  active  verbs  hid, 
make,  need,  hear,  \  let,  see,  feel,  and  dare ;  and  occasionally  after  a  few 
other  verbs  that  are  like  some  of  these  in  sense. 

3.  Since  the  participle  and  the  infinitive  are  much  aUke  in  sense  and 
construction,  great  care  should  always  be  taken  to  select  that  which  is 
more  appropriate. 

4.  A  participial  noun  should  never  be  so  used  that  it  may  be  mistJiken 
for  an  adjective,  a  participle,  or  a  part  of  a  compound  verb. 

5.  When  a  participial  noun  from  a  transitive  verb  is  limited  by  a 
preceding  article,  adjective,  or  possessive,  it  generally  becomes  intran- 
sitive, and  requires  of  after  it. 

6.  When  a  participial  noun  from  a  transitive  verb  is  not  hmited  by 
a  preceding  word,  it  may  generally  govern  the  objective  case. 

.  7.  Of  the  four  modes  of  expression, — the  ordinary  noun,  the  particip- 
ial noun,  the  infinitive,  and  the  substantive  clause, — great  care  should  be? 
taken  to  select  the  most  appropriate  the  language  affords. 

"We  saw  the  lady  while  passing  down  the  street.  (Who  passed  ?)  H© 
pleaded  tlie  case  in  such  a  manner  as  to  become  tedious  and  disagreeable. 
(Change  the  entire  sentences  if  necessary.)  I  ihink  of  you  alone  more  frequently 
tiian  when  surrounded  by  others.  While  sleeping  under  a  largo  tree,  my  horse 
was  stolon.      I  heard  the  noise  of  a  carriage,  eating  my  supper. 

You  will  please  send  them  back  immediately,  if  you  can  not  sell  them.  We 
ought  not  speak  ill  of  others,  unless  tliere  is  a  necessity  for  it.  If  I  bid  you  ta 
study,  dare  you  to  be  idle  ?  To  go  I  could  not,  but  to  remain  I  would  not. 
That  old  raiser  was  never  seen  give  a  cent  to  the  poor.  Not  a  single  complaint 
was  heard  escape  the  lips  of  any  individual.  We  made  her  to  believe  it.  She 
was  made  believe  it.  We  durst  not  to  approach  any  nearer  to  the  elephant. 
His  father  compelled  him  return  to  his  school.  It  is  better  live  on  a  little  than 
outlive  a  great  deal.  Will  you  please  answer  my  letter  immediately?  I  would 
Jiavo  you  read  all  the  books  on  the  subject.  1  have,  known  young  men  spend 
more  in  a  week  than  they  earned  in  a  year. 

P:xceptions.— "  My  horse  bids  fair  to  take  the  premium ;  "He  was  let  go;" 
"  I  dared  him  to  bet ;"  "I  feci  it  to  be  my  duty;"  "  How  could  you  make  out  to 
got  along?"  I' She  needed  only  to  have  told  us  that  she  was  unwell;"  "  1  can 
not  see  to  write  this  letter,"— are  all  correct  or  allowable.  "He  can  show  his 
moral  courage,  only  by  daring  do  riglit. "—■(?.  Brown.  Mr.  Brown  has  written 
thw  sentence  for  good  English  ;  but,  to  my  ear,  "6y  daring  to  do  right;'  sounds 
better. 


VERBS. EXERCISES.  ^09 

I  WQuld  not  have  let  her  gone  to  such  a  place,  —go —  He  neglected 
doing  his  duty.  — to  do —  Ho  faQed  reciting  his  lesson.  I  intended  giving 
him  a  piece  of  my  mind.  He  chose  building  in  another  place.  I  preferrod 
staying  at  home.  You  have  no  right  meddling  with  my  property.  No  nation 
should  be  allowed  interfering  with  the  domestic  affairs  of  another.  We  should 
never  undertake  doing  too  much  at  once.  I  never  desired  having  such  a  man 
for  a  friend.  No  one  likes  being  in  debt.  It  is  easier  asking  questions  than 
answering  them.  G-oing  to  law  is  giving  the  matter  in  dispute  to  the  lawyers. 
I  was  about  seuding  for  you  when  you  arrived.  Solomon  says,  "  It  is  as  sport 
to  a  fool  doing  mischief"  Tliero  is  no  telling  what  he  would  do  if  left  to  him- 
self It  is  impossible  to  tell  what,  &c.  The  being  branded  with  such  a  piece  of 
iron,  would  make  the  horse  run  away.  To  brand  the  horse,  &c.  We  considered 
ourselves  to  be  badly  treated.  Ho  was  seen  to  ride  along  the  road.  Relieving 
misery  is  a  pleasure  to  the  good.  Compromising  conflicting  opinions,  will  ever 
be  necessary  in  a  large  repubhc.  What  prevents  our  going  immediately  ? 
— lis  from  going —  What  is  to  prevent  us  going  together  ?  I  had  bolted  the 
door  to  prevent  it  being  opened — its  being  opened.  What  prevents  such 
worthless  fellows  passing  for  fine  gentlemen  but  the  good  sense  of  other  men  ? — 
Addison.  The  mother's  good  sense  prevents  the  daughter's  having  her  head 
made  giddy  by  fops,  beaus,  and  riches. 

His  being  industrious  and  frugal  will  make  him  rich.  His  industry,  &c. 
Paying  visits  will  be  losing  time.  Barter  is  exchanging  different  commodities. 
Is  not  this  abusing  the  privileges  of  the  House?  The  mind  soon  becomes 
weary  by  its  being  intensely  applied  to  one  subject.  The  most  important  busi- 
ness is  determining  the  boundary  line. 

There  is  a  strong  necessity  for  us  being  more  frugal  This  measure  is  taking 
a  bold  step.  This  punctuation  is  giving  the  sentence  a  different  meaning  from 
the  true  one.  Such  a  law  would  not  be  giving  all  the  States  an  equal  right  to 
the  territories.  Scanning  is  dividing  poetic  lines  into  their  feet.  The  highwa; 
of  the  upright  is  departing  from  evil.  His  whole  speech  was  begging  thj 
question.  His  being  acquainted  with  influential  men  was  of  great  service  to 
him.  What  is  called  a  compound  pronoun,  from  its  usually  representing  two 
words.  — becaiise  it —  She  was  much  opposed  to  him  rioting  with  bad 
companions.  Your  being  left  was  altogether  accidental.  That  you  were,  &c. 
The  common  saying  of  every  one's  being  tiie  architect  of  his  own  fortune,  is 
hardly  true.  Nothing  that  she  has  done,  can  justify  your  having  treated  her 
so  contemptuously.  — you  in  having  treated —  There  are  not  many  instances 
of  creditors  not  being  disposed  to  be  oppressive  to  their  debtors.  — instances  in 
which —  Her  lameness  was  caused  by  a  horse's  running  away  with  her.  — by 
a  horse  that  ran —  It  is  not  proper  to  speak  of  a  river's  emptying  itself.  — river 
as  eraptying —  We  were  speaking  of  the  congregation's  being  so  much  affected 
by  the  sermon.  The  servant's  being  negligent  has  caused  the  losing  of  the 
horse.  In  order  to  our  correctly  understanding  the  subject,  let  us  suppose,  &c. 
The  fact  of  he  being  a  partner — of  him  being  a  partner,  gave  credit  to  the  firm. 

By  speaking  of  truth,  you  will  command  esteem.  By  the  obtaining  wisdom, 
you  will  command  esteem.  By  obtaining  of  wisdom,  you  will  command  es- 
teem. By  reading  of  good  books,  his  mind  became  improved.  Learning  of 
languages  is  difficult.  It  is  an  overvaluing  ourselves,  to  reduce  every  tiling  to 
our  own  standard  of  judging.  Poverty  turns  our  attention  too  much  upon  the 
supplying  our  wants ;  riches,  upon  the  enjoying  luxuries.  This  was  a  cowardly 
foisaking  his  party.  By  the  vigorously  pursuing  his  studies,  he  will  soon  be 
competent.  By  vigorously  pursuing  his,  &c.  We  were  agreeably  entertained 
by  the  visiting  of  our  friends.  — by  a  visit  from —  or,  by  a  visit  to —  This 
money  was  used  in  feathering  of  his  own  nest.  Luxury,  indolence,  and  a  fan- 
tastic sease  of  propriety,  are  the  chief  causes  which  tend  to  tho  enorvatitig  and 


204  VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 

enfeebling  our  women.  The  taking  things  by  force  is  apt  to  produce  reaction. 
This  was  in  fact  a  converting  the  deposits  to  his  own  use.  The  placing  your- 
self in  the  most  conspicuous  situation  will  tend  to  render  you  contemptible. 
(The  infinitive  is  sometimes  preferable  to  the  participle,  and  the  ordinary  noun 
is  sometimes  preferable  to  either.) 

Multiplication  is  the  repeating  a  number  a  given  number  of  times.  — is 
the  repetition  of —  Emphasis  is  the  laying  a  greater  stress  on  some  par- 
ticular word  or  words.  The  cutting  evergreens  for  Christmas  was  fashion- 
able when  I  was  a  boy.  The  saying  what  we  think,  is  not  always  prudent. 
To  say  what,  &c.  The  inviting  them  will  not  put  us  to  any  more  trouble.  The 
not  having  invited  them  to  the  party,  she  afterwards  regretted.  That  she  had 
not,  &c.  There  is  no  keeping  such  children  in  the  house.  — no  keeping  of — 
or.  It  is  impossible  to  keep,  &c,  A  more  careful  guarding  the  prisoners  would 
have  prevented  this  accident.  For  the  better  regulating  our  governments  in 
the  territories.  This  amounts  to  a  full  relinquishing  her  dowry.  His  neglect- 
ing my  affairs,  has  been  very  injurious  to  me.  The  separating  large  numbers 
into  periods,  facilitates  the  reading  them  correctly.  Is  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences correct  ?  "  Your  building  so  fine  a  house,  may  excite  the  envy  of  your 
neighbors;"  "  My  seeing  him,  will  be  sufficient ;"  "My  seeing  of  him,  will  be 
sufficient;"  "  My  having  seen  him,  will  be  sufficient ;"  "  My  having  seen  of  him, 
will  be  sufficient ;"  "  The  soldiers  deserted  oa  account  of  the  captain's  ordering 
him  to  be  whipped ;"  "  The  soldiers  deserted  on  account  of  the  captain's  order- 
ing of  him  to  be  whipped." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

I  &  2.  In  Old  English,  be  was  often  used  where  other  parts  of  this  verb  are 
liow  used.  "  In  other  pleasures  there  is  satiety  ;  and,  soon  after  tliey  be  used,  their 
verdure  fadeth," — Bacon.  Verbs  differing  in  sense,  are  sometimes  nearly  iden- 
tical either  in  their  primitive  forms  or  in  their  derived  forms,  as  set,  sit;  overflowed, 
overflown:  and  hence  they  are  often  ridiculously  misapplied.  "  I  can  but  go,"  im- 
plies that  I  can  do  nothing  more  ;  "  I  can  not  but  go,"  implies  that  I  can  not  do 
otherwise,  but  most  go:  hence  both  forms  should  be  retained,  since  they  are  both 
needed.  Dare,  let,  Tieed,  and  ought,  are  considered  principal  verbs,  and  not  auxilia- 
ries, though  they  seem  to  be  in  a  middle  or  transition  state,  especially  need,  which 
is  sometimes  found  without  inflection.  "  She  need  not  make  herself  uneasy." — 
Irving.  Can  not  should  rather  be  written  as  two  words,  unless  we  mean  to  prevent 
ufjt  from  qualifying  some  other  word  than  the  verb  ;  as,  "  You  cannot  consistently 
deny  it." 

_  When  the  ordinary  passive  form  implies  completion,  habit,  or  custom,  tlie  word 
being  is  sometimes  inserted  to  express  continuance.  "To  other  stations  where  the 
new  rifle-praotiee  was  being  introduced:^ — Atlantic  MontJily.  "The  materials  of 
discontent  were  gradually  being  concentrated.'''' — lb.  "  The  evaporation  dish  of  the 
the  philosopher  was  be'ing  used  by  an  irreverent  sparrow." — Harper'^s  Magazine, 
^^  Y  oar  tYieiviis  being  bur  led.^^ — lb.  Such  forms  are  avoided  by  the  best  writers. 
"  While  tliese  affairs  were  transacting  in  Europe,'' — Bancroft.  "Where  anew 
church  is  now  buiULng.'''—E.  Everett.  "The  medley  of  monuments  with  which 
KenA'mg-zreen  i8  filling.'^— F.  Sargent.  "The  shocking  neologism,  'The  ship  ?;« 
hidng  amOeed:  " — G.  P.  Marsh.  We  should  combine  the  simple  present  or  perfect 
participle  with  the  auxiliary,  or,  if  neither  of  these  forms  will  give  the  sense,  use 
the  active  voice,  or  recast  the  sentence.  Oar  language  occasionally  needs  forms  to 
express  in  the  continuativo  passive  sense  those  verbs  whose  perfect  participles  im- 
ply completion ;  and,  as  necessity  makes  slaves  of  us  all,  the  foregoing  uncouth 
passive  forma  are  rather  gaining  ground.  But,  if  the  perfect  participle  implies 
coinpletioii,  tlie  compound  participle  also  does :  therefore,  is  being  built,  for  in- 
sUuice,  is  literally  the  same  in  time  as  is  built,  and  has  the  progressive  sense  merely 
Vjy  adoption.  The  uncouth  forms  are  used  only  in  the  present  and  the  past  indica- 
tive ;  tor  such  forms  as  fuil  been  being  built,  might  be  being  built,  migM  have  been 
bemg  built,  die  of  sheer  ugliness. 


VERBS. OBSERVATIONS.  205 

3.  So  veiy  often  are  the  auxiliaries  needed  and  misapplied,  that  the  following 
fhll  explanation  will  perhaps  not  seem  too  len;^thy  to  the  reader.  ^''Shall  Igor' 
Is  it  your  wish  or  determination?  Are  you  willing?  ''Shall  I  find  you  when  I 
return  ?"  Will  it  come  to  pass  ?  Will  you  have  it  so  ?  "  Will  I  go  ?"  Ordinarily 
absui-d,  unless  taken  up  and  repeated  as  another's  question.  "■Shall  you  go  ?"  la 
it  so  determined  ?  Will  it  take  place  ?  "■Will  hQ  go  V  Is  he  willing  to  go?  Is 
he  likely  to  go  ?  "/S'/^a?^  we  be  married ?"  Are  you  willing?  Will  it  take  place ? 
(Where  the  plural  is  not  given,  it  agrees  with  the  corresponding  singular.)  "SMU 
I  be  elected?"  ''Shall  I  suffer?"  Will  it  come  to  pass  ?  Is  that  to  be  my  fate? 
■'■Will  you  be  elected  ?  Are  you  willing  ?  More  frequently^  Will  it  come  to  pass  ? 
^'iS'AaZZ  you  be  elected?"  Will  it  come  to  pass?  (Seldom  so  used  in  the  West.) 
^'ShaU  he  be  elected  ?"  "Shall  he  suffer  ?"  Is  that  the  determination  ?  "  Will  he 
be  elected  ?"     "  Will  he  suffer  ?"     Will  it  come  to  pass  ? 

"  1  shall  go.^''  "  I  a/wt^^  be  elected."  "1  shall  anWar.^''  It  will  come  to  pass — 
I  foretell  it.  "1  will  go.''''  "Iwill  be  elected."  "  I  wiK  suffer."  I  am  willing  ; 
I  promise  it ;  I  am  resolved  upon  it.  It  is  in  my  power,  and  I  am  determined  to 
have  it  so.  "  You  shall  go."  "  You  shall  be  elected."  "  You  shall  suffer."  It  ia 
so  determined.  It  is  to  be  so  in  spite  of  your  will  or  of  obstacles.  "  He  shall  goJ^ 
*'  He  shall  be  elected."  "  He  shall  suffer."  The  same  in  sense  as  the  preceding. 
*'  You  will  go."  "  You  ivlU  love  him."  "  Y'"ou  will  come  to  this  at  latst."  It  will 
come  to  pass,  and  probably  be  voluntary.  "  You  tvUl  be  elected."  "  You  will 
suffer."  It  will  come  to  pass.  "  He  will  go.''''  "  He  will  assist  you."  "  He  will 
be  elected."  "  He  w/?^  suffer."  Same  as  the  second  person.  "  It  z/^i^^  cost  blood 
and  treasure."  Simple  futurity.  "  It  A^^aW  cost  neither."  Determination  to  pre- 
vent. "  Hickory  will  make  a  good  fire."  It  is  adapted  thereto.  "  This  will  do." 
"  This  will  never  do."  Adaptation  ;  adequacy.  "  i  will  be  pleased  with  his  com- 
pany." I  will  try  to  make  it  agreeable  to  myself,  even  if  it  should  tend  to  be  other- 
wise. "  I  shall  be  pleased  with  his  company."  It  will  be  agreeable,  whatever  it 
be.  Will  may  denote  a  future  certainty,  depending  on  ability ;  shall,  a  future  cer- 
tainty assuming  the  ability.  "  Philip  will  hang  Astor,  if  he  [Philip]  takes  the 
city." — Ancient  History.  ''I  shall  then  trample  on  all  those  forms  in  which  wealth 
and  dignity  intrench  themselves." — Chatham.  Shall,  being  authoritative,  is  some- 
times preferred  in  emphatic  prediction.  "  It  shall  come  in  empire's  groans,  burn- 
ing temples,  tram  plea  thrones." — Groly. 

"  If  any  one  shall  subscribe."  "  Whoever  shall  subscribe."  Simply,  if  it  take 
place.  "  If  any  one  will  subscribe.  "Whoever  w'dl  subscribe."  "If  you  wiU 
subscribe."  "  When  you  will  subscribe."  "  Unless  we  will  give  our  consent." 
To  be  willing,  and  do  so.  In  this  sense,  s'hall  or  should  often  refers  tothe  overt 
act ;  and  wUl  or  would,  simply  to  the  intention.    I  would  say,  "  I  promise  that  I 

tvill you  shall he  shalV ;  "  I  resolved  that  I  would ^,you  should he 

should'''' ;  where  I  have  or  mean  to  use  authority  :  "  I  believe  that  I  shall 

you  will he  wilV ;  "  I  believe  that  I  should you  would he  would'''' ; 

"I  assured  him  that  you  would— —he  wouW ;  where  the  matter  is  not  in  my 

control.    And  so  in  the  other  persons  :    "  You  are  determined  that  I  shall you 

will he  shair ;  "  You  were  determined  that  I  should that  you  would 

that  he  should''' .     "  He  is  determined  that  I  shall that  you  shall that  ha 

^vilV ;   "He  was   determined  that  I  should that  you  should that  be 

wouW' .      "You  think   I  shall  suffer you  shall he   wilV ;   "You 

thought  that  I  should  suffer that  you  should that  he  would'^ .      "He 

thinks  that  I  shall  be  killed that  you  will that  he  shall  or  will that  our 

friend  wiW^ .     "  He  hoped  that  I  should  be  sent that  you  should that  he 

himself  sAww-W  or  would that  our  friend  would" .     "  He  requested  that  our 

friend  should  be  sent  for." 

"Do  you  think  I  shall  go?"  That  it  will  come  to  pass.  "Do  you  think  I 
sJiould  go  ?"  That  I  ought  to  go ;  or,  that  my  going  would  take  place,  if  certain 
things  should  happen,  whether  I  might  be  willing  or  not.  "  Did  you  think  that  I 
should  go  ?"  That  it  would  come  to  pass  ;  or,  that  it  was  my  duty  to  go.  "  Do 
you  think,  or  did  you  think,  that  I  should  have  gone  ?"  That  it  would  have  hap- 
pened ;  or,  that  it  was  my  duty  to  go.  "  Do  you  think  I  will  ? — I  would  V  "  Did 
you  think  I  would  f''  refer  to  my  will— my  motives.     "  I  am  surprised  that  he  wiU 

fo."   At  his  going  under  such  circumstances.    "  I  am  surprised  that  he  would  go." 
'rom  what  I  know  of  his  general  character.     "  I  am  surprised  that  ho  shall  ro." 
That  it  is  so  determined.     "  I  am  surprised  that  he  should  go."     I  am  surprised  at 


206  VERBS, OBSERVATIONS. 

the  mere  occurrence  of  the  act,  without  reference  to  any  motives  or  necessity. 
"  John  wiis  afraid  tliat  he  imidd  not  succeed."  "  John  was  afraid  that  he  shonli 
not  succeed."    The  former  impUes  a  stronger  reference  to  the  adaptation  of  the 

means  to  the  end ;  the  latter  imphes  more  of  chance.    "  I,  you,  he,  it,  should'''' . 

It  is  a  matter  of  duty,  right,  or  propriety.     "  I,  you,  he,  it,  should  ....  (/" . 

Something  to  take  place  on  condition  ;  or  else,  the  same  as  the  preceding.  '■'■Should 

I,  you,  he,  it ... .  then" ;  "  If  I,  vou,  he,  it,  should  ....  then" .    If  it  were  to 

take  place.  .  .  .then .   "  I,  you,  he,  slie,  it,  wouW .   Inclination,  proneness, 

custom,  tendency;  or,  consequence,  result.  "If  I  wovld  study."  If  I  were  will- 
ing. "If  I  should  study."  Were  it  to  take  place;  a  mere  supposition.  "If  I 
would  have  written."  I  was  unwihing,  and  did  not.  "  If  I  should  have  written." 
Had  I  done  so.  "  If  I  would  betray  him,  he  should  forsake  me,"  is  very  ditferent 
from  "  If  I  should  betray  him,  he  would  forsiike  me."  So,  "  If  he  should  leave 
you,  you  would  suffer ;"  "  If  he  would  leave  you,  you  should  suffer."  "  If  it  would 
rain."  Wished.  "  If  it  should  rain."  Feriiaps  not  wished.  "  He  was  to  rem:iiii 
until  he  should  be  sent  for."  Bare  event.  "  Until  he  mifjfht  be  sent  for."  Greater 
contingency;  or  possibility.  In  a  moral  sense,  c*/i  is  a  little  stronger  t\mn  ma?/. 
"I  tnai/  not  do  so."  I  have  not  permission,  or  it  would  be  improper.  "  I  can  not 
violate  my  oath."  My  conscience  forbids  it.  ^^It  must  have  been  so."  Present 
necessity  of  belief.  "Had  the  river  risen,  he  must  have  droioned /^  pluperfect. 
Past  necessity. 

Most  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  usually  set  forth  the  act  or  state  as  not  absolutely  cer- 
tain ;  hut  as  tinged  with  allusion  to  the  condition,  time,  or  circumstanees,  on  which  it 
depends,  and  as  expressing,  accordingly,  a  correspondiruf  degree  of  certainty.  Hence, 
they  may  sometimes  be  used  to  express  softened  commands  or  assertions.  "  You 
wiU  not  hurt  him,  will  you?"  for,  "Do  not  hurt  him."  "  It  m>o«W  seem  so"  [if 
you  should  examine  the  evidence;  or  rather,  the  evidence  tends  to  persuade  one  to 
this  belief],  for,  "  It  seems  so."  '■'■It  should  seem  so"  [from  the  deference  natu- 
rally due  to  evidence  of  such  authority],  for,  "  It  seems  so."  "  I  should  think  not'^ 
[from  what  you  tell  me],  for,  "  I  think  not."  "  I  should  hardly  believe  it"  [were 
It  told  to  me;  or,  scarcely  any  thing  is  sufficient  to  cause  such  belief],  for,  "I 
hardly  believe  it."  Sometimes  the  sense  of  the  auxiliaries  in  the  potential  mood  is 
nearly  lost,  and  the  mood  becomes  almost  indicative  in  meaning.  "  He  knew  not 
how  far  the  ramifications  of  the  conspiracy  might  extend.'''' — D.  Webster.  — did  ex- 
tend. When  the  time  is  suflaeiently  indicated  without  the  auxiliary,  then  the 
auxiliary  must  denote  something  else,  or  be  superfluous.  "When  he  will  come '^'' 
>'  When  I  slmll  have  arrived.''''  If  will  and  shall  were  here  inserted  merelv  to  ex- 
press the  time,  the  expressions  would  have  been  better  without  them.  "  When  he 
comes ;"  "  When  I  haoe  arrived?''  Will,  when  put  into  such  clauses,  relates 
directly  to  the  will  of  the  subject;  and  shall  implies  determination,  resolution, 
contingency.  "They  should  remember  that  England  entered  India  from  the  se-i, 
and  that  until  she  shall  have  been  subdued  on  that  element,  it  would  be  idle  to  think 
of  dispossessing  her  of  her  Oriental  suDreinacy."— ^iSto/iZlw  Monthly.  That  is,  un- 
tU  resolved  upon  and  accomplished,  'i'he  author  rather  believes  or  intimates  that 
this  is  not  easy  or  likely  to  ba  done. 

6*  In  imitation  of  a  French  idiom,  the  passive  forms  of  such  verbs  as  become^ 
arrive,  rejoice,  sit,  &c.,  were  formerly  much  used ;  but  the  present  tendency  is,  to 
preter  the  active  forms.  Mr.  Brown  says,  that  a  few  verbs  are  yet  thus  used,  to 
Bignity  that  a  person's  own  mind  is  the  cause  that  actuates  him  ;  as,  "  He  was  re- 
mloed  on  gomg  to  the  city  to  reside ;"  "  He  is  inclined  to  go ;"  "  He  is  determined 
to  go.  When  a  passive  sense  can  not  be  conceived,  or  when  the  active  form 
seems  ejiually  proper,  this  should  generally  be  preferred.  Thus,  "I  incline  to 
thmk,  IS  now  generally  preferred  to  "  I  am  inclined  to  think."  Mistake,  in  the 
passive  torm,  is  still  iu  good  use;  as,  "I  am  mistaken:'''  but  the  active  form  is 
also  used;  as,  "I  mistake:  it  is  your  bull  that  has  killed  one  of  my  oxen." 
'  You  are  mistaken,''  is  probably  a  delicate  euphemism  for,  "  I  misconceive  your 
meaning." 

'''•.  The  selection  of  moods  and  tenses  is  sometimes  a  matter  of  great  nicetv, 
especially  in  arguuiontative  discourse.  The  conditional  present  indicative  ex- 
presses doubt  only.  The  conditional  present  subjunctive  expresses  both  doubt 
and  tuture  time  ;  and  the  conclusion  belonging  to  it,  is  generally  expressed  in  the 
tuture  indicative.  Indicative  foi-ms  are  sometimcb  preferred  aa  being  a  little 
•pnghtner,  or  as  relating  to  permanent  or  universul  truths.    "  I  vill  keep  it  till 


VEUBS. OBSERVATIONS.  207 

he  returm:''  I  am  sure  he  will  return.  "  I  will  keep  it  till  he  return:'  I  doubt 
that  he  will  ever  return.  "  If  Consifress  Tia7)e  not  the  granted  right,  it  can  not  exer- 
cise it."  Said  before  the  Constitution  was  made.  "  If  Concfress  has  not  the  granted 
right,  it  can  not  exercise  it."  Said  after  the  Constitution  was  made.  "  If  the 
government  of  Virginia  passes  a  law  contrary  to  the  bill  of  rights,  it  is  nugatory." 
— P.  Henry.  At  any  time  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  coackision.  "  If  gentle- 
men are  willing  to  run  the  hazard,  let  them  run  it." — Id.  They  seem  to  be  quite 
willing.  The  orator  referred  to  existing  facts  then  before  his  mind  ;  but  had  he 
not  been  aware  of  the  existence  of  any  such  willingness  at  the  time,  and  supposed 
it  merely  probable,  he  would  have  said,  "  If  gentlemen  be  willing,"  etc.  "  If  a 
piece  of  paper  he  laid  on  the  table  of  the  discharger,  and  a  powerful  shock  directed 
through  it,  it  wUl  he  torn  in  pieces." — Arnot.  ^'•Be  laid"  accords  best  with  '-'•will  he 
torn."  "  If  a  fresh  quantity  of  water  is  thrown  upon  the  remaining  fragments,  it  is 
absorbed  with  a  hissing  sound." — Id.  '■'- Is  thrown"  accords  best  with  "  i^  ab- 
sorbed ;"  besides,  the  tbrmer  verb  here  denotes  what  is  often  done,  and  the  latter, 
what  certainly  follows.  "  If  the  earth  is  at  H,  and  the  planet  at  I,  the  outermost 
satellite  will  be  in  conjunction  with  its  primary." — Bowdltch.  Allowable  ;  for  will 
expresses  merely  the  natural  consequence.  "  If  an  object  is  [or  he']  in  the  principal 
focus,  it  will  ap]3ear  brighter."  The  present  subjunctive  is  now  applied  merely  to 
future  and  contingent  matter  of  fact,  rather  than' to  present  matter  of  fact  of  which 
our  knowledge  is  future  and  contingent.  "  If  this  he  true,  I  shall,"  &c.  It  eitlier 
is  true,  or  is  not  true ;  but  there  is  a  mental  contingency  in  regard  to  ascertaining 
its  truth  hereafter.  "If  this  is  true,"  etc.,  is  better  authorized.  And,  "  If  this  is 
treason,  make  the  most  of  it."  The  time  involved  in  the  tenses,  may  relate  to  the 
speaker,  to  the  doer,  to  the  beginning,  state,  or  end  of  the  act,  or  to  any  of  its  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  hence  the  many  niceties  in  regard  to  tenses.  The  perfect  infini- 
tive is  antecedent,  in  time,  to  the  leading  verb  ;  hence  verbs  of  hoping^  intending, 
commanding,  &c.,  generally  require  the  present;  but  it  is  wron^  to  teach  that 
none  of  them  ever  admit  the  perfect.  "  Dr.  Kush  hopes  to  have  laid  the  foundation 
of  a  system  which,  if  adopted,  will,"  &c. — G.  Brown.    (Correct.) 

8.  Sometimes  the  form  of  the  subject,  but  more  commonly  the  sense,  controls 
the  form  of  the  verb.  When  a  verb  relates  to  two  nominatives,  of  which  one  is  a 
predicate-nominative,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  decide  which  should  be  considered 
the  subject.  If  both  stand  after  the  verb,  the  nearer  one  is  its  subject.  When  the 
arrangement  is  otherwise,  the  student,  if  he  has  been  well  drilled  in  Analysis,  will 
generallj^  be  able  to  determine  without  much  difficulty.  When  two  or  more  infini- 
tives, or  infinitive  phrases,  or  substantive  clauses,  are  connected  by  and,  it  is  also 
sometimes  difficult  to  decide  wliether  the  verb  should  be  singular  or  plural.  The 
writer  or  speaker  best  knows  his  own  meaning:  let  him  consider  whether  he  refers 
to  all  as  one  thing,  or  whether  he  refers  to  each,  and  accordingly  make  the  verb  sin- 
gular or  plural.  The  phrases-"  as  follows,"  "as  regards,"  "  as  appears,"  "  as  con- 
cerns," should  generally  be  used  as  they  are  here  ^iven,  unless  they  occur  so 
closely  in  connection  with  a  plural  substantive  as  to  be  Influenced  by  it ;  as,  "  The 
exceptions  are  as  follow.'''' — Wilson's  Punctuation.  Mr.  Wilson  uses  tiiis  mode  oi 
expression  frequently,  though  other  writers  generally  prefer  the  singular  form. 
Mr.  Brown's  doctiine  of  Thou,  and  its  "familiar  forms"  of  the  verb,  is  evidently 
erroneous. 

Nominatives  involving  numbers,  or  arithmetical  nominatives,  are  not  yet  well 
settled  in  regard  to  their  syntactical  structure.  Most  of  them  may  be  classed  with 
collective  nouns.  In  addition,  the  verb  must  of  course  he  plural;  in  subtraction, 
division,  or  proportion.,  it  may  be  sinaular  or  plural,  accordmg  to  the  view  takeix : 
infractions  and  compound  numbers  that  must  oe  read  plarallv,  the  verb  should,  I 
think,  be  generally  plural,  though  the  principle  that  a  plural  term  sometimes  de- 
notes a  single  object,  or  that  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  connected  by  and 
denote  but  one  person  or  thing,  sometimes  operates  in  favor  of  the  singular  verb. 
As  to  multiplication,  I  believe  the  prevailing  custom  is  this  :  When  the  word  t'tmes 
is  used,  it  controls  the  form  of  the  verbj  when  once,  twice,  or  thrice  is  used,  the 
verb  should  be  singular  or  plural,  according  as  the  expression  involves  the  idea  of 
time  or  times.  Mr.  Brown  says,  that  the  multiplicand  should  be  considered  the 
nominative ;  and  that  when  this  is  one,  naught,  or  any  other  singular,  the  verb 
should  be  singular  ;  and  when  it  rises  above  one,  the  verb  should  be  plural.  This 
is  certainly  the  most  rational  view,  and  can  be  best  sustained  by  tlie  grammatical 
analysis  of  the  subject,  and  also  by  analogy.    It  accords  best  with  such  expressions 


WBn  ADVERBS. 

as,  "  Twice  the  sum  is  insufficient  to  pay  ray  debts  ;"  "  Four  timea  the  son's  ago 
is  equal  to  the  father's;"  "  Ten  times  the  amount  was  refused  ;"  "  Five  times  the 
quantity  was  sold ;"  which  are  perhaf)3  too  well  established  to  be  condemned. 
The  German  language  also  confirms  this  latter  opinion,  except,  I  believe,  that  it 
more  frequently  regards  the  multiplicand  a  singular  collective  noun. 

9.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  the  participle  or  the  infinitive 
should  be  preferred.  Sometimes  either  may  be  used.  Tne  present  participle  de- 
notes an  act  or  state  as  accompanying  that  of  the  principal  verb,  while  the  infinitive 
commonly  implies  that  the  acts  or  states  are  successive.  The  infinitive  is  generally 
better  adapted,  than  the  particij)le,  to  express  the  act  or  state  substantively.  When 
a  substantive  participle  or  infinitive  ie  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  substan- 
tive denoting  the  object  to  which  the  act  or  state  belongs,  it  is  often  better  to  use 
the  clause  beginning  with  that.  When  a  verbal  appositive  relates  to  an  initial  it, 
it  should  rather  be  the  infinitive  than  the  participle ;  as,  "  It  is  useless  trying,'''' 
should  be,  "  It  is  useless  to  try.''''  After  verbs  oH  trying  ov  intending,  the  infinitive 
should  be  used.  After  the  verbs  hear,  see,  and  feel,  either  may  be  used.  After 
verbs  of  omitting,  avoidiny,  or  preventing,  the  participle  should  generally  be  used. 
After  verbs  of  beginning,  continuing,  or  desisting,  the  participle  may  generally  be 
used,  though  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  more  elegant.  Whether  a  substantive 
associated  with  a  participle  should  be  made  possessive,  depends  on  which  term 
conveys  the  more  prominent  idea.  "  The  fair  wind  is  the  cause  of  the  vessel's 
sailing  ;"  not,  "  The  fair  wind  is  the  cause  of  the  vessel  sailing,"  When  a  parti- 
ciple is  limited  by  such  a  preceding  word  as  usually  requires  o/' after  the  participle, 
the  of  may  sometimes  be  omitted  before  pronouns,  when  it  rather  affects  the  sense 
of  the  participle  than  corresponds  to  the  antecedent  limiting  word.  "  Your  eating 
of  it  made  you  sick,"  is  not  equivalent  to  "  Your  eating  it  made  you  sick."  "  He 
said  it  in  hearing  his  father,"  "He  said  it  in  the  hearing  of  his  father,"  differ  in 
sense  :  the  word  hearing,  in  the  former,  relates  to  He  ;  in  the  latter,  io  father.  "  He 
was  killed  by  galloping  a  horse."  He  himself  rode  the  horse.  "  He  was  killed  by 
the  galloping  of  a  horse."    Some  other  person,  or  else  no  one,  rode  the  horse. 

9.  ADVERBS. 

?  353.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  Sometimes  an  adverb  modifies  a 
phrase  or  an  entire  proposition. 

Ex.— "She  is  homely,  but  she  sings  'beautifully:''  "  The  lake  is  wr^^  deep." 
'■'■Yonder  lies  your  book."  "  I  will  write  to-morrow.''''  "  He  speaks  tolerably  well:'' 
"  He  sailed  nearly  round  the  world."  Nearly  modifies  not  the  preposition  round,  but 
the  adjunct  round  the  world,  for  an  adjunct==.an  adjective  or  an  adverb.  "  The  book  ii* 
soiled  only  on  the  outside."  "  He  was  so  young,  so  intelligent,  so  |  every  thing  that 
we  are  apt  to  like  in  a  young  man."— /ryira^.  Here  the  entire  part  of  the  sentence 
after  the  last  so,  has  the  sense  of  an  adjective  modified  by  so.  "  Have  you  seen 
him  ?— iVb."  Here  it  is  simplest  to  regard  No  as  modifying  the  question.  Words 
ft-om  other  parts  of  speech  are  also  occasionally  used  as  adverbs.  "  Carnation  red  ; 
marble  cold;  somewhat  better;  none  the  worse;  passing  strange;  dripping  wet; 
dcaldin^  }ioV'  "It  fell  down.''  ''Above,  armmd,  beneath,  within,  the  lurid  fires 
gleamed."  "You  have  paid  dear  for  the  whistle."  ''Tramp,  tramp,  across  the 
land  they  speed ;  splash,  splash  across  the  sea."— ,S'co«.  "  The  stronger  the  mind, 
th£  greater  Its  ambition."— ^iJwoft.  Degree.  "  His  heart  went  p'lt-a-pat,  but  hers 
\rent pity  Zekle.''—Lawea.    How? 

?  354.  Some  entire  phrases  are  customarily  used  as  adverbs. 
Such  are  termed  adverbial  phrases,  and  parsed  like  adverbs. 

Ex.— "In  general';— (7e«<?m%;  "  by  and  hf  =^ soon,  shortly ;  "at  alV'^in  any 
degree.      'At  least;  in  short ;  on  high;  in  fine;  at  present ;  at  last;  on  the  con- 
trary ;  out  and  out ;  through  and  through ;  no  more ;  at  most ;  for  the  most  part ; 
three  times ;  four  times ;  man  by  man— Lat.  viritim  ;  foot  by  foot ;  glass  to  glass.'* 
He  said  it  ogam  and  again:'   "  Whose  brisk  awakening  sound  he  loved  ihe  best:'* 


ADVERBS.  209 

"  iiepresentation  and  taxation  should  go  Jiand  in  Ttandy  "  Tlie  argument  was 
carried  against  him  all  hollowy — Irving.  A  phrase  should  not  be  parsed  as  a 
whole,  when  its  words  can  be  parsed  separately  with  as  much  propriety. 

?  855.  An  adverb  modifies  by  expressing  manner,  degree,  plac(\ 
time,  or  some  other  circumstance.       See  above. 

?  356.  Sometimes  an  adverb  modifies  its  word,  in  relation  to  a 
substantive  in  the  same  clause  or  proposition. 

Ex. — "  Not  only  he  must  go,  but  you  fco."  "And  chiefly  thou,  0  Spirit,  instruct 
me," — Milton.  "  'Twas  better  so  to  close,  than  longer  wait  to  part  entirely  foes." — ■ 
Byron.  "John  only  \  borrowed  the  horse."  No  other  person  assisted.  "John  | 
onZy  borrowed  the  horse."  He  did  not  buy  him.  "John  borrowed  the  horse 
only;''''  "John  borrowed  I  o»Zw  the  horse."  He  borrowed  nothing  more.  "And 
leave  the  world  for  me  to  bustle  i»." 

?  357.  Some  adverbs  connect  two  clauses,  and  modify  a  word  in 
each.  Such  are  called  conjunctive  adverbs.  The  clause  with  the 
adverb  has  the  sense  of  an  adverb,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun. 

Ex. — "  Make  hay  wMle  the  sun  shines."  When.  "  He  rode  the  horse  lefor« 
he  bought  him."  '"  You  speak  of  it  as  you  understand  it."  How?  ^^  Go  where 
glory  waits  thee."  Whither  i  "  In  the  grave  where  our  hero  was  buried."  In 
what  grave?  " The  reason  it'^j' it  has  been  negected,  is  obvious."  What  reason? 
"  I  saw  how  a  pin  is  made."  I  saw  what?  Sometimes  the  antecedent  or  correla- 
tive adverb  is  expressed,  and  then  the  latter  adverb  merely  joins  on  and  modifies 
its  own  part.  "  1  was  there  \  where  it  happened."  Where  it  happened  is  explanatory 
of  there  somewhat  like  an  appositive. 

?  358.  Sometimes  adverbs  so  little  affect  the  sentence  that  it 
would  not  seem  improper  to  say  they  are  used  independently. 

Ex. — Yes,  no,  ay,  amen,  accordingly,  consequently,  &c.  "  Nay,  such  was  the 
general  clamor,  that,"  &c.  "  Why,  you  must  be  crazy."  "  Well,  I  hardly  know 
what  to  say."  "  So,  so,  and  this  is  the  way  you  liave  spent  your  time."  "  There 
were  three  in  all;  namely,  John,  James,  and  Joseph,"  ^^ Secondly,  he  could  go 
there  if  he  would,"  "  There  is  none  righteous,  no,  not  one."  '■''Thus,  in  France, 
common  carriers  are  not  liable  for  robbery." — Kent.  Adverbs  thus  used  partake 
of  the  nature  of  conjunctions  or  interjections.  Most  of  them  may  be  parsed  as  ad- 
verbs modifying  the  entire  proposition,  or  the  preceding  sentence  or  discourse, 
or  else  something  understood  ;  and  some  of  them  are  always  best  parsed  as  con- 
junctions. 

?  359.  Adverbs,  like  adjectives,  may  be  divided  into  classes,  and 
they  have  also  comparison.  Many  adverbs  may  be  compared  like 
adjectives ;  but  derivative  adverbs  ending  in  ly,  are  nearly  always 
compared  by  more  and  most,  or  by  less  and  least.       See  pp.  30-32. 

Ex. — Soon,  sooner,  soonest;  early,  earlier,  earliest;  wisely,  more  wisely,  rmst 


Frequently,  an  adverb  denotes  manner,  when  it  modifies  a  verh  ;  and  degree, 
when  it  modifies  an  adjective  or  an  adverb:  as,  "He  thinks  «0j*"  "He  writes  so 
awkwardly."     '■'■How  did  you  do  it  ?"     "  I  know  not  how  deep  it  is." 

?  360.  Most  adverbs  are  formed  by  annexing  ly  to  adjectives  or 

participles.     Sometimes  s  is  annexed. 

Ex.— Firm, /rwZy;  noble,  too%;  united,  unitedly  j  snaring,  sparingly  ;  out- 
w-ard,  outwards.  Ly  (Saxon  lie,  Germ,  lich)  is  origmally  the  same  as  like,  OJ 
simply  another  form  oilike.    Gentleman,  gentleman-like,  gentlemanly 


210  ADVERBS. 

?  361.  Some  adverbs  are  compounded  of  two  or  more  words; 
and  adverbs  are  often  used  to  form  other  compound  words. 

Ex. — Indeed,  forever,  Jierenpon,  wh.eYe7vUhRl,  aboarcl=on  board,  ahead=at  the 
head,  fiemdier,  fovevermore,  whither,wever,  helter-skelter.  Well-bred,  /a?'-fetched, 
downtrodden;  w/ipunished,  untrue,  impure.  The  common  prefix  un,  and  its 
equivalents,  are  adverbial,  signifying  not. 

1  362.  Adverbs  promote  brevity.  The  sense  of  almost  every  ad- 
verb can  bo  conveyed  by  an  adjunct  or  some  other  expression.  A 
conjunctive  adverb  is  nearly  always  equivalent  to  two  adjuncts; 
and  most  adverbial  phrases  and  some  adverbs  are  but  imperfect 
adjuncts. 

Ex. —  Wisely =m  a  wise  manner,  with  wisdom;  rapidl?/=vr\th.  rapidity;  ^ere=' 
at  or  in  this  place ;  thus=-in  this  manner  ;  'ver//'=in  a  high  degree  ;  wh>/=i'or  what 
reason ;  never=at  no  time.  "  Whence  [from  toJiai  place]  is  he  ?"  "  She  was  buried 
when  the  sun  was  setting"=She  was  buried  at  the  time  in  which  the  sun  was  set- 
ting. The  seed  grew  up  where  it  fell ;  i.  e.,  from  the  place  on  which  it  fell.  WJien 
may  stand  for  then  when  ;  where,  for  there  where;  as,  for  so  as.  At  present=ut  the 
present  time ;  yesterday=ou  yesterday  ;  in  vain=m  a  vain  manner ;  long  «!7o=at  a 
time  long  gone  by.  Sometimes  it  is  better  to  use  the  adjunct.  "  In  a  silly  man- 
ner," is  a  better  expression  than  sillily  ;  "  in  a  small  way  or  degree,"  than  smally  ; 
"in  concord,"  than  concordantly ;  "  by  which,"  "with  which,"  than  wherewith. 

?  363.  Adverbs  supply  the  inadequacy  of  tenses,  and  they  have 
also  some  affinity  with  moods. 

Ex. — "  I  will  study  |  presently — fty  and  hy — to-morrow — henceforth^  "  He  will 
certainly  come."  Indicative  mood  strengthened.  ^^Perhaps  he  will  _come"=IIe 
may  come.  Some  adverbs  need  not  the  verb,  to  express  commands  in  the  most 
forcible  manner.  "C>/i,  Stanley,  o?i.'"=March  ow.,  <fec.  Z7^,  warder,  ho  !  '■^Away 
with  it."    Down  with  tyranny.     Out  with  him.     '■'■Hence,  or  thou  diest." 

?  364.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  adverbs  from  ad- 
jectives. 

Some  words  retain  the  same  form  in  either  sense;  but,  gen 
erally,  the  ending  ly  or  s  is  made  the  sign  of  the  adverb. 

Ex.— No,  well,  better,  best,  much,  more,  most,  rery,  wide  (=ajar),  long,  first, 
all,  even,  just,  like,  right  (==very,  directly),  else,  next,  pretty  (=tolerably),  little, 
1638,  least,  still,  ill,  worse,  worst,  enough,  full  (=very),  only,  hard  (=laboriously), 
fast,  yonder,  early,  late,  likely,  daUy,  weakly,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly,  gentle- 
manly, manly,  comely,  princely,  dea'dly,  kingly,  nightly;  "no  man,"  adj.;  '■'"no 
deeper,"  adv.    Brave,  hraoely  ;  witty,  wittily ;  able,  ably;  upward,  upwards. 

1  365.  In  poetry  and  in  compound  words,  the  adjective  form  of 
the  word,  or  the  adjective  mode  of  comparison,  is  allowed  to  a 
greater  extent  than  elsewhere. 

Ex.—"  The  swallow  sings  sweet  from  her  nest  in  the  w&lV'—Dimond.  "  Drink 
deep,  or  touch  not  the  Pierian  spring:'— Pope.  "  Ten  censure  wrong  for  one  that 
writes  amiss.  —Id.  "Though  thou  vrert  firmlier  fastened  than  a  rock.''— Milton. 
High-colored,  smooth- f^Wding  :  yet,  even  in  most  such  compounds,  the  reference  is 
BtiU  to  a  noun  rather  than  to  a  verb  ;  as,  sweet-scented-^of  sweet  scent ;  highrsoaring 
—high  m  soaring ;  and  we  can  not  say  high-polislied,  but  must  say  highly  polished. 

?  366.  An  adjective  may  be  affected  by  a  verb,  and  still  remain 
an  adjective,  provided  the  verb  shows  merely  how  the  quality  is 
acquired  or  made  known.     The  quality  may  often  be  conceived  as 


ADVERBS. EXERCISES.  211 

beloiigin|2:  to  the  person  or  thing,  regjardless  of  the  act; 'or  else  as 
belonging  to  the  former  in  the  way  shown  by  the  verb. 

Ex. — "Who  PAINTS  the  lily  lohite^  the  violet  hluef''  "  The  clay  burns  wMte.''' 
"  The  waves  dashed  high.''''  '"'  The  fields  look  jjleasant.''''  "  I  feel  cold ;"  i.  e.,  I  am 
cold.  State  or  quality.  *'  She  looks  coldly  on  him."  Manner.  "The  rose  smells 
ftweeV  "  Mary  appears  neaV  She  is  always  so,  or  in  regard  to  every  thing : 
neatness  is  a  trait  m  her  character.  "  Mary  dresses  neatly?''  She  is  neat.^  so  far  as 
dressing  is  concerned.  "  The  apple  tastes  sowr."  Here  we  could  not  say,  '■'■in  a 
sour  manner.''''  "The  trees  stand  thick ;''''  i.  e.,  they  are  thick,  dense,  or  numerous. 
"He  stood  _y?;'7n."  "We  arrived  safe.''''  '■'■Wamade  merry  over  his  loss;"  i.e., 
was  merry,  or  made  himself  merry,  etc.  ^'■Sqft  blows  the  breeze."  {^^Scft  is  the 
breeze  that  blows  o'er  Ceylon's  isle.")  "  Velvet  feels  smooth.^''  "  His  hammock 
swunir  loose  at  the  sport  of  the  wind."  "The  wind  blew  the  colder,  the  longer  it 
blew."  So,  when  the  word  expresses  state  or  condition  in  relation  to  the  subject, 
rather  than  manner,  place,  or  time  in  relation  to  the  verb ;  as,  athirst,  and  com- 
monly asleep,  alone,  alike,  ablaze,  afoot,  afloat,  adrift. 

?  367.  Generally  speaking,  the  adverb  approaches  the  adjective 
as  the  verb  approaches  a  neuter  signification,  or  that  of  the  verb  he. 
Ex. — "  He  spoke  Je^^e/* ;"  adv.    "  He  seemed  Je^^er  y"  "  He  felt  fte^^e?* ;"  adj. 

?  368.  ^'yer=at  any  time,  at  all  times.  It  is  often  a  very  expressive 
"word,  and  is  much  used  in  composition ;  as,  evergreen,  everlasting.  Now — 
no i^= sometimes — sometimes.  Then  sometimes  implies  rather  condition 
than  time.  There  does  not  always  denote  place,  but  sometimes  elegantly 
introduces  the  sentence,  or  makes  a  convenient  handle  to  it.  ThiLS  and  so 
may  each  sometimes  represent  a  preceding  or  a  following  word,  phrase,  or 
sentence.  So  occasionally  represents  a  noun,  though  not  always  elegantly. 
Yes  and  no  are  each  equivalent  to  a  sentence. 

Ex. — "  Did  you  ever  see  the  like  ?"  ^^Nbw  loud,  now  low,  now  swift,  now  slow, 
o'er  hill  and  vale  they  winding  go."  Suppose  your  parents  should  die  ;  how  would 
you  make  a  living  then  f^^in  that  condition.  "  2'here  came  to  the  beach  a  poor 
exile  of  Erin."  "  There  was  nothing  there  that  I  waated."  "  Thus  has  it  ever 
been."  "  He  is  a  great  scholar.— 6b  I  was  told."  "  The  lord  treasurer  was  often 
a  bishop.  The  lord  chancellor  was  almost  always  so.^^—Macaulay.  "You  saw 
him  ? — Jes"==I  saw  him. 

?  369.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns, 

Ex.— "For  once.'''  "By  /ar  the  best."  "And  closed  for  aye  the  sparkling 
glance."  "  We  have  caught  enough:^  "  We  have  played  enough;']  adv.  Such 
words  as  much,  more,  enough,  little,  are  nouns  when  used  after  transitive  verbs. 

?  370.  Adverbs  are   said  to   belong  to  whatever  they  modify. 

See  p.  47.  ^ 

EXERCISES. 
Examples  to  be  Analyzed  and  Parsed. 

Parse  the  adverbs  and  adjectives. 

The  clouds  move  slowly.  Now  came  still  evening  on.  She  gazed  long 
upon  the  clouds  in  the  west,  while  they  were  slowl]/  passing  away.  As 
the  year  blooms  and  fades,  so  does  human  life.  So  great  a  man  could  not 
be  always  kept  in  obscurity..  Having  duly  arranged  his  affairs,  be  de- 
parted immediately.  You  are  yet  young  enough  to  learn  the  French  lan- 
guage very  easily.  The  most  worthless  things  are  sometimes  most 
esteemed.  Where  was  there  ever  an  army  that  iiad  served  their  country 
more  faithfully  ? 


212  ADVERBS. EXERCISES. 


Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  day  stands  tiptoe  on  the 
misty  mountain's  top.  In  vain  we  seek  for  perfect  happiness.  We  lived 
there  long  ago.  The  more  I  study  grammar,  the  better  I  like  it.  Man  by 
man,  and  foot  by  foot,  did  the  soldiers  proceed  over  the  Alps.  It  was 
not  at  all  strange,  that  he  should  at  last  defend  himself  Only  the  young 
men  were  sent  to  war.  The  field  had  only  been  ploughed.  The  wretched 
fugitives  were  pursued  even  to  the  churches.  Briefly,  we  rely  on  you 
alone.  Finally,  the  war  is  already  begun,  and  we  must  either'*  conquer 
or  perish.  Shall  this  colossal  Union  be  broken  asunder?  No;  never, 
never  1     They  are  most  firmly  good  that  best  know  why. 

3. 

Friends,  but'^  few  on  earth,  and  therefore' '  dear  ; 
Sought  oft,  and  sought  almost  as^^  oft  in  vain. — Pollok. 
Now  they  wax,  and  now  they  dwindle, 

WhirUng  with  the  whirling  spindle ; 
Twist  ye,  twine  ye !  even  so 

Mingle  human  bliss  and  woe. —  W.  Scoit. 
The  piper  loud  and  louder  blew, 
The  dancers  quick  and  quicker  flew. — Burns. 


Examples  to  be  Corrected. 

All  the  liabilities  to  error  in  regard  to  adverbs,  may  be  reduced  to  the  fol- 
lowing heads : — 

1.   Choice.     2.  Form.     3.  Position. 

1.   Choice. 

The  most  appropriate  adverb  should  be  selected  to  express  the  mean- 
ing intended. 

A  wicked  man  is  not  happy,  be  he  never  so  hardened  in  conscience.  "We 
do  not  want  the  sound  of  these  charmers  [organ-grinders],  charm  they  never  so 
sweetly. — Harper'' s  Magazine.  Snow  seldom  or  ever  falls  in  the  southern  part 
of  Texas.  Whether  you  are  willing  or  no,  you  will  have  to  pay  the  debt.  The 
road  is  so  muddy  that  we  can  proceed  no  further.  Nothing  farther  was  said 
about  the  matter.  It  rains  most  every  day.  This  wheat  stands  most  too 
thick.  He  is  a  mighty  insignificant  follow.  Where  shall  I  flee?  Who 
brought  me  here,  will  also  take  me  from  hence.  We  remained  a  week  at  Gal- 
veston, and  proceeded  from  thence  to  Indianola.  Such  cloaks  were  in  fashion 
about  five  years  since.  — ago.  About  two  weeks  since,  two  grocery -keepers 
at  Doniphan  liad  a  fight.  Related  not  only  by  blood,  but  likewise  by  marriage. 
— hut  (dso —  James  is  studious,  but  Thomas  is  studious  also.  — too.  I  am 
some  bettor  than  I  was.  — someuohai —  He  felt  something  encouraged  on 
receiving  the  news.  No  other  tree,  iu  its  old  age,  is  as  beautiful  as  the  elm. 
Have  you  done  like  he  directed  you?  —as —  Directly  he  comes,  Ave  shall 
go.  (Say,  ".4s  soon  as,'"  for  directly  is  not  a  conjunctive  adverb.)  Immediately 
when  they  arrive,  we  shall  go.  I  never  before  saw  sucli  large  trees.  — trees 
thai  were  so  large.      She  is  such  a  good  woman.    — so  good  a  woman. 


ADVERBS. EXERCISES.  2fl8 

2.  Form. 
Adverbs  should  be  expressed  in  their  true  or  most  appropriate  form. 

Speak  slow  and  distinct.  You  have  behaved  very  bad.  This  pen  does 
not  write  good.  He  behaved  manhly.  She  behaved  very  siUily.  At  this 
place,  the  mountains  are  extraordinary  high  and  steep. — History  of  Virginia. 
He  lived  an  extreme  hard  life.  She  is  a  remarkable  pretty  girl.  An  abomina- 
ble ugly  little  woman  officiated  at  the  table.  I  am  only  tolerable  well,  sir. 
It  is  wonderful  to  see  how  preposterous  the  affairs  of  this  world  are  sometimea 
managed.       The  fox  is  an  exceeding  artful  animal.      He  is  doing  fine.     She 

was  dressed  as  fl as  silk  could  make  her.       People  say  he  is  independent 

rich.  He  struggled  manful,  and  became  independent.  You  have  been  wrong 
informed  on  the  subject.  Sure  he  is  as  fine  a  gentleman  as  can  be  found  any- 
where. She  dresses  suitable  to  her  station  and  means.  "We  went  direct  to 
the  cave. 

I  shall  first  notice  why  we  should  worship  God ;  and,  second,  how  we  should 
worship  him.  Fifth  and  last,  I  would  remark  that  he  never  succeeded  at  any 
thing.  Agreeable  to  the  present  arrangement,  I  shall  have  to  recite  my  Greek 
during  the  first  hour.  Previous  to  our  arrival,  the  captain  was  taken  ill.  The 
insolent  proud  soon  acquire  enemies.  We  have  near  finished  our  work.  You 
did  the  work  as  good  as  I  could  expect.  The  Irishman  was  so  bruised  that  he 
said  he  scarce  knew  himself  again.  As  like  as  not  you  love  her  yourself  Push 
the  wagou  backward.  • — backwards.  Come  hitherward.  I  received  the  gift 
with  pleasure,  but  I  shall  now  gladlier  resign  it.  — ^nore  gladly —  These  are 
the  things  highliest  important.  I  can  easier  raise  a  croj)  of  hemp  than  a  crop 
of  tobacco.       Abstract  principles  are  easiest  learned  when  clearest  illustrated. 

3.  Position. 

Adverbs  should  be  so  placed  in  the  sentence  as  to  make  it  correct,  clear, 
and  elegant. 

This  precept  is  also  applicable  to  adjuncts  and  to  some  conjunctions. 

Every  man  can  not  afford  to  keep  a  coach.  Not  every  man,  &c  All  their 
neighbors  were  not  invited.  All  that  we  hear,  we  should  not  believe.  There 
could  not  be  found  one  man  that  was  willing  to  enlist.  They  became  even 
grinders  of  knives  and  razors.  The  two  young  ladies  came  to  the  party,  nearly 
dressed  aUke.  I  only  recited  one  lesson  during  the  whole  day.  In  promoting 
the  public  good,  we  only  discharge  our  duty.  Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to 
polytheism.  He  is  only  so  when  he  is  drunk.  I  only  bought  the  horse,  and 
not  the  buggy.  I  have  borrowed  this  horse  only,  yet  I  intend  to  buy  him. 
Sucli  prices  are  only  paid  in  times  of  great  scarcity.  These  words  were  not 
only  uttered  by  a  mortal  man,  but  by  one  who  was  constantly  exposed  to  death, 
and  expecting  it.  The  word  couple  can  only  be  properly  applied  to  objects  in 
connection.  The  interest  not  only  had  been  paid,  but  the  greater  part  of  the 
principal  also.  Bibulus  could  only  escape  outrage,  by  not  only  avoiding  all 
assemblies  of  the  people,  but  every  solemn  and  important  meeting  of  tlie  senate. 
If  you  have  only  learned  to  spend  money  extravagantly  at  college,  you  may  stay 
at  home.  If  you  have  learned,  at  college,  only  to  spend  money  extravagantly,  &c 
The  future  tense  simply  expresses  future  time.  Corn  should  be  generally 
planted  in  April.  He  is  thought  to  be  generally  honest.  For  beginners  and 
generally  young  men.  The  farmers  sell  their  produce  generally  to  the  mer- 
chants. 

In  other  countries,  where  the  fate  of  the  poor  is  wretched  indeed,  of- 
fices are  merely  created  for  the  emolument  of  certain  classes.       How  much 


214  ADVERBS. EXERCISES. 

would  the  difficulty  be  increased,  were  wf»  solely  to  depend  upon  their  gen- 
ero^ty  1  I  am  not  as  attentive  to  the  studies  I  even  like,  as  I  should  be.  Most 
nations,  not  even  excepting  the  Jews,  were  prone  to  idolatry.  He  can  not 
show  me  where  ever  I  voted  ditterent.  No  man  has  ever  so  much  that  he  does 
not  wish  to  accumulate  more.  "We  do  those  things  frequently  which  we  re- 
pent of  afterwards.  There  was  another  man  still,  who  had  lost  his  horse  also. 
— was  still  another  man —  There  is  still  a  shorter  method.  — a  still  shorter — 
My  opinion  was  given  after  rather  a  cursory  perusal  of  the  book.  feuch  con- 
duct rather  will  make  him  sulky  and  stupid  than  amiable  and  sprightly.  I  my- 
self was  a  little  incUned  to  visit  her  once.  Having  lost  once  a  thousand  dollars 
by  speculation,  he  would  never  venture  again.  Having  almost  lost  a  thousand 
dollars  by  the  speculation,  he  was  able  only  to  pay  a  part  of  the  debt.  Sextus 
the  Fourth,  if  I  mistake  not,  was  a  great  collector  of  books,  at  least.  By  hasty 
composition,  we  shall  acquire  certainly  a  very  bad  style.  The  argument  is 
very  plausible,  certainly,  if  not  conclusive.  Having  not  known,  or  having  not 
considered  the  measures  proposed,  he  failed  of  success.  Our  boat  had  fortun- 
ately left  the  ship,  previous  to  the  explosion.  He  promised  to  send  to  me  as 
much  again  as  he  had  borrowed,  the  next  day.  They  were  almost  cut  off  to  a 
man.  There  is  nothing  more  pleases  him  than  to  praise  his  performances. 
There  is  nothing  that  pleases  him  more,  than  for  others  to  praise,  &c.  We  may 
happily  live,  though  our  possessions  are  small.  Not  only  he  found  her  em- 
ployed, but  pleased  and  tranquil  also.  She  will  be  always  discontented.  The 
following  bet  is  said  actually  to  have  been  made  between  an  Adams  man  and  a 
Jackson  man.     — is  said  to  have  actually  been  made — 

I  occupy  the  same  political  position  nearly,  that  I  occupied  five  years  ago.  The 
words  should  be  arranged  so  that  harmony  may  be  promoted.  — so  arranged — 
The  law  does  not  undertake  to  compel  him  so  to  do,  or  punish  him  for  not  so 
doing. — Kent.  The  front  part  of  the  house  was  very  differently  built  from  tiie 
back  part.  The  goods  could  not  be  possibly  shipped  any  sooner.  He  seems 
clearly  to  have  understood  this  part  of  the  Constitution.  — seems  to  have  clearly — 
He  seems  early  to  have  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  law.  We  should 
not  be  overcome  totally  by  present  events.  It  can  not  be  impertinent  or  ridi- 
culous therefore  to  remonstrate.  It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work. 
We  have  often  opportunities  to  do  good.  It  seems  but  three  miles  distant,  and 
yet  it  perhaps  is  twenty.  He  determined  to  invite  back  the  king,  and  to  call 
together  his  friends.  Nature  mixes  the  elements  variously  and  curiously  some- 
times, it  is  true.  The  Secretary  was  soon  expected  to  resign — was  expected 
daily  to  resign.  A  school  must  carefully  be  conducted  to  please  such  patrons. 
They  managed  so  as  completely  to  elude  their  pursuers.  We  are  not  inclined 
to  unnecessarily  place  ourselves  in  so  perilous  a  situation.  You  are  to  slowly 
raise  the  trap,  while  I  hold  the  sack.  The  sealing  of  the  documents  up,  ai.so 
delayed  me.  T/ie  sealing-up  of,  &c.  Spelling  is  the  putting  of  letters  together, 
80  as  to  make  words. 

I^egatives. 

When  two  negatives  contradict  each  other  they  can  not  express  a 
negation. 

It  is  hardly  proper,  though  according  to  custom,  to  place  this  class  of  errors  under  Ad- 
verbs ;  for  sometimes  neither  one  of  the  negatives  is  an  adverb. 

I  will  never  do  so  no  more.  We  didn't  find  nobody  at  home.  I  don't 
know  notiiing  about  your  affairs.  There  can  not  be  nothing  more  contemptible 
than  hypocrisy.  The  scene  was  truly  terrific ;  nothing  never  affected  me  so 
much.  But,  0 1  the  greedy  thirst  of  royal  crown,  that  knows  no  kindred,  nor 
regards  no  ri'^ht.— Spenser.  Congress  has  not,  nor  never  had,  the  Constitu- 
tiormi  power  to  intermeddle  thus.      Ho  wondered  tiiat  none  of  the  members  had 


ADVERBS. OBSERVATIONS.  915 

*4ever  thought  of  it.  Be  honest,  nor  take  no  shape  nor  semblance  of  disguise. 
Do  not  let  no  one  disturb  me.  Never  was  a  fleet  more  completely  equipped, 
nor  never  had  a  nation  more  sanguine  hopes  of  success.  Neither  that  nor  no 
such  thing  was  said  in  my  hearing.  Tliere  was  no  bench,  nor  no  seat  of  any 
kind,  that  was  not  crowded  with  people.  Neither  he,  nor  nobody  else,  ever 
raised,  in  one  year,  so  many  bushels  of  potatoes  on  one  acre.  She  will  never 
grow  no  taller.  For  hence  I  will  not,  can  not,  no,  nor  must  not.  Death 
never  spared  no  one.  "And  yet  say  nothing  neither;"  "And  yet  say  nothing 
either."     (Usage  is  unsettled  as  to  this  phraseology.) 

OBSEEVATIONS. 

1,  M),  in  such  expressions  as  "whether  or  no,"  should  be  not.  Everso  prop- 
erly expresses  indefinite  or  unlimited  degree ;  its  place,  therefore,  should  not  be 
usurped  by  never  so.  Most  means  in  the  highest  degree^  and  it  is  often  improperly 
used  for  almost  or  rather,  or  as  a  contraction  of  the  former.  Nearly  should  rather 
be  applied  to  (quantity,  time,  or  space  ;  and  almost,  to  degree.  So,  entirely^  and 
scarcely  rather  imply  quantity;  completely  and  hardly,  degree.  Hither,  thither^ 
and  whither,  are  now  preferred,  only  m  the  grave  style,  to  here,  there,  and 
where,  when  the  principal  idea  is  motion  to  or  from  a  place.  Hence,  thence,  and 
•whence,  imply  the  idea  of  from  something ;  hence,  to  place  from  before  them, 
makes  the  expressions  tautological  and  generally  inelegant.  Likewise  strictly  im- 
plies sanuthing  more  in  like  manner  ;  also,  something  more  ;  and  too,  sometMng  more 
of  the  same  act,  state,  or  kind  of  things.  But  these  distinctions  are  not  always  ob- 
served. "  I  have  done  like  he  directed,"  should  be,  "  I  have  done  as  he  directed." 
Like  suergests  a  similarity  of  manner  in  the  two  actions ;  but  as  properly  expresses 
their  connection  and  correspondence.  So,  with  a  modifying  word,  expresses  de- 
gree ;  and,  in  this  sense,  such  or  as  is  sometimes  incorrectly  or  inelegantly  used  in 
the  place  of  it.  "She  is  not  such  an  amiable  woman  as  her  sister;"  i.  e.,  not  an 
amiable  woman  of  the  same  kind  as  her  sister.  "  She  is  not  so  amiable  a  woman 
as  her  sister;"  i.  e.,  not  amiable  in  the  same  degree.  But,  since  different  grades 
are  often  tlie  same  as  different  kinds,  the  two  modes  of  expression  are  often  equi- 
valent, and  are  so  used  by  many  good  writers.  Tlie  same  remark  applies  to  sen- 
tences of  this  kind :  *'  She  is  not  as  amiable  as  her  sister."  Better  :  "She  is  not  so 
amiable  as  her  sister."  But,  without  the  preceding  negative,  we  might  properly 
say,  "  She  is  as  amiable  as  her  sister  ;"  "  It  is  as  good  as  the  other."  Farther^' 
heyond  this  place  ;  further=in  addition,  and  is  not  usually  applied  to  place. 

2.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  are  often  confounded,  because  they  resemble  in  sig- 
nification; because  some  words  are  used  iu  either  capacity,  v/hile  others  are  not; 
>)ecause  most  adverbs  are  derived  frotn  adjectives,  and  because  they  are  sometimes 
really  interchangeable  without 'injuring  the  sense,  for  the  nature  of  every  act  is 
intimately  connected  with  the  objects  on  which  it  depends.  Grammarians  have 
tried  to  guard  pupils  against  errors,  by  the  precept,  ^^ Adjectives  should  be  used  to 
qualify  nouns,  or  pronouns  ;  hut  adverbs,  to  qualify  vei-bs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 

Different  Forms  :  Well,  for  instance,  is  the  adverb  corresponding  to  the  adjec- 
tive good.  Same  Forms  :  Better,  best,  worse,  toorst,  &c.,  are  used  either  as  adverbs 
or  as  adjectives.  Derived  Forms:  Previous,  previously;  easier,  more  easily;  <fec. 
The  ending  ly  or  s  should  be  preferred,  wlien  it  will  distinguish  the  adverb  from 
the  corresponding  adjective ;  as,  scarcely,  upwards,  downimrds.  Licensed  Forms  : 
Tlie  adjective  may  sometimes  be  used  in  stead  of  the  adverb ;  or  rather,  the  form 
of  the  adjective,  especially  the  comparative  or  the  superlative  preceded  by  «n  ar- 
ticle, may  be  used  as  an  adverb.  "  He  lives  best  who  acts  the  noblest.'^''  '■'■Swjft  to 
the  breach  his  comrades  fly"=They  are  swift  in  flying  to  the  breach.  ^'•Swiftly  to 
the  breach  his  comrades  fly"=They  r?^  swiftly  to  the  breach.  Perhaps  the  adjec- 
tive in  most  such  expressions  implies  a  fixed  and  permanent  quality  or  attribute, 
and  the  adverb  only  a  temporary  state.  '■'■Soft  sighed  tiie  flute  ;"  i.  e.,  with  that 
sweetness  and  softness  which  are  peculiar  to  it, — ^which  it  always  has.^  "  Softly 
sighed  the  flute"  [in  that  particular  instance].  When  the  adverbial  ending  would 
change  the  meaning,  the  adjective  form  must  be  used.  "  To  stop  <fAr>r^,"  differs 
from  "  To  stop  shortly.''''     "'  lie  came  contrary  to  my  expectatioua  ;"  not,  contrariiy. 


216  ADVERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 

"  For  gentlemen  who  speak  me  fair.''''  Sometimes  the  adjective  form  is  proper, 
because  tlie  expression  is,  in  thought  at  least,  elliptical,  or  is  but  the  adjective  rem- 
nant of  an  adjunct  or  other  phrase  that  performed  the  office  of  an  adverb. 
"Though  she  paint  an  inch  thick;''''  L  e,,  paint  her  face  with  rouge  an  inch  thick. 
"  You  have  paid  dear  for  the  whistle  ;"  ^.  e.,  a  dear  price  for  the  whistle.  "  You 
work  late  ;"  *,  e.,  till  a  late  hour.  "  It  happeiled,  contrary  to  my  expectations"  ==It 
happened;  which  thing  was  contrary  to  my  expectations.  "He  hit  the  tree  wide 
from  the  mark ;"  i.  e.,  a  wide  distance.  "  Speak  true  ;"  *.  e.,  what  is  true.  If  I  say, 
"  The  machinery  works  sraootJily,''''  I  refer  simply  to  its  operation ;  but  if  I  say,  "  It 
works  smooth,  I  refer  to  its  parts  as  affected  by  its  operation.  So,  "  The  mahogany 
polishes  finely,''^  expresses  the  sense  better  than  "  The  mahogany  polishes  fine  ;" 
for  the  meaning  is,  that  it  not  only  becomes  fine,  but  admits  polish  better  than 
most  otlier  things.  Should  we  say,  "  I  feel  had,  or  hadly  .?"  Butler  and  Clark 
have  decided  in  favor  of  had.  Our  best  writers  seem  to  have  avoided  the  expres- 
sion altogether.  We  say,  "I  feel  coM,"  "I  felt  mean,;'''  buf  the  best  popular 
usage  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  saying,  "I  feel  hadly,''''  which,  moreover,  is  not 
equivalent  to  "  I  am  had''' 

When  the  meaning  is  a  mongrel  of  adjective  and  adverb,  I  believe  general  usage, 
in  most  instances,  prefers  the  adjective  form. 

To  avoid  the  disagreeable  termination  lily,  we  sometimes  use  a  synonymous 
word;  as,  piously  for  hoUly :  sometimes  we  use  the  corresponding  adjunct;  as, 
"In  a  wily  manner,"  for  wilily:  and  there  is  some  tendency  to  use  the  adjective 
form  for  both  the  adjective  and  the  adverb;  as,  "A  manly  act  it  was;"  "He 
aeted  manly.''' 

To  poets  is  allowed  great  liberty  in  the  use  of  adverbs  ;  especially  in  the  form.. 
But  neither  poets  nor  any  other  persons  are  allowed  to  use  them  so  as  to  pervert 
their  meaning.  A  poot  may  say,  "  The  swallow  sings  sweet  from  her  nest  in  the 
wall ;"  or,  "  To  slowly  trace  the" forest's  shady  scenes  ;"  or,  '■'■From  thence  to  other 
scenes  he  passed ;"  for  we  understand  him.  But,  "  His  visage  to  the  view  was 
only  bare,"  does  not  convey  the  meaning  intended;  and  should  be,  "His  visage 
Duly  to  the  view  was  bare." 

3.  The  position  of  adverbs  is  regulated,  in  the  first  place,  by  the  sense ;  and 
next,  by  emphasis  and  melody. 

Adverhs  are  generally  placed  after  the  verb,  or  after  tJie  first  auxiliary,  before  ot 
after  participles,  and  before  adjectives  or  adverhs. 

Enough  follows  its  adjective  or  adverb  ;  as,  "  A  place  good  encyughP  Every 
nsver,  sometimes,  often^  always^  most  frequently  precede  the  verb.  Such  adverbs  as 
only,  merely,  solely,  diiefiy,  at  least,  &c.,  maybe  used  to  limit  almost  any  part  of  the 
sentence,  and  should  therefore  be  placed  near  to  the  parts  which  they  are  intended 
to  modify.  Some  of  the  most  common  adverbs  are  very  dilFasive  in  their  shades 
of  meanmg,  and  their  capability  of  modifying.  "  He  is  generally  at  home" — time. 
^J' Cro\m  are  generally  good" — time  or  place.  "  The  sennon  was  <7^«e/'aWy  interest- 
ing." Were  most  of  its  parts  good  ?  or  did  it  please  most  of  the  people  ?  or  did  the 
person  often  preach  good  sermons  ?  The  effect  of  inserting  sucn  adverbs  can  not 
be  too  carefully  scrutinized.  T7ie  is  sometimes  elegantly  required  before  a  com- 
parative or  a  superlative  adverb,  to  express  emphasis ;  as,  "  Whose  sweet  en- 
trancing tones  he  loved  the  best."— Collins. 

Emphatio  Position  :  "  Then  never  saw  I  charity  before."  "  In  their  prosperity, 
my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me ;  in  their  adversity,  always." 

Metrical  PosmoN ;  "  Peeping  from  forth  their  alleys  green ;"  "To  smftly  glide 
o'er  hill  and  dale." 

_  4.  Two  negatives  make  an  affirmation,  as  in  the  following  sentence:  "  I  never 
said  nothing  to  him  about  it"=I  said  somelninjr  to  him  about  it.  The  sentence 
should  have  been,  "I  never  said  any  thing  to  him  about  it;"  or,  "I  said  nothing 
to  him  about  it."  Not,  followed  "hy  only,  or  by  some  equivalent  word,  modifies  this, 
a,nd  does  not  affect  the  negative  coming  after  it ;  so  that  a  sentence  with  two  nega- 
tives thus  situated,  is  still  negative;  as,  "I  not  only  never  said  so,  but  never 
thought  so."  Two  negatives  independent  of  each  other,  a  negative  repeated,  or  a 
nej^ative  strengthened  by  its  correlative,  do  not  destroy  the  negation;  as.  "iVb, 
never.'J  "  I  will  n^er,  never  give  mv  consent."  "  There  was  no  peace,  rto  happi- 
ncM,  in  the  family."     "I  have  seen  Christians  that  had  neither  love  nor  charity." 


PREPOSITIONS.  217 

"  It  may  not  be  popular  neither  to  take  away  any  of  tlie  privileges  of  Parlia- 
ment."— Mansfield.      "  I    do  not  understand  this  business. — Nor  I  neither.''^ 

Garrich.    Here  either^  I  think,  would  be  incorrect ;  for  neither  is  the  proper  cor- 
relative of  nor. 

Two  negatives  are  sometimes  preferred  to  express  a  modest,  an  elegant,  or  a 
forcible  aflirraaton  ;  as,  "  He  is  not  ttascliooled  in  the  ways  of  the  world;"  i.  «., 
he  is  shrewd  enough.  "  I  mean  the  riding-habit,  which  some  have  not  wjudiciously 
styled  the  hermaphroditical,  by  reason  of  its  masculine  and  feminine  composition." 
— Gai/.  "  There  is  no  climate  that  is  not  a  witness  of  their  toils." — JBurke. 
"iV^r  did  they  not  perceive  the  evil  plight 
In  which  they  were,  or  the  fierce  pain  rwt  feel." — Milton. 

10.   PREPOSITIONS. 

?  371.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  different  things. 

Ex. — ''  A  rabbit  in  a  hollow  tree."  "What  in  what  ?  "  How  sweetly  bloom  the 
violets  on  yonder  bank  !"    "  The  wind  glides  in  waves  over  the  bristling  barley.'" 

?  Two  prepositions  are  sometimes  combined  and  used  as  one,  and 
some  phrases  are  customarily  used  as  prepositions. 

Ex. — ^Upon,  according  to,  as  to,  as  for.  "  The  river  flowed//'om  under  the  pal- 
aces." ^'■Over  against  the  church  stood  the  hospital."  "  The  lady  sits  genteelly, 
the  niore  heaause  o/"  company." 

?  372.  Prepositions  subjoin  the  place,  time,  doer,  possessor,  cause, 
source,  purpose,  means,  manner,  condition,  or  some  other  circum- 
stance. They  show  where.,  whither.,  whence.,  when.,  how  long,  by 
what  means,  to  what  extent,  in  what  way,  of  what  kind,  &c. 

Ex.—"  The  fox  was  caught  under  a  bluff,  he/ore  sunrise,  h/  the  dogs  of  our 
neighbor."  "  To  be  punished  for  mischief."  "  The  light  of  the  sun."  "  To 
work  for  pay."  "  To  chop  with  an  ax."  "  To  write  with  elegance."  "  To  be  in 
poverty."    "  Done  against  law." 

?  373.  An  adjunct  is  a  preposition  with  its  object,  or  with 
the  words  required  after  it  to  complete  the  sense. 

Ex. — "  This  large  melon  grew  on  a  slender  vine.''"'  "  He  was  shot  in  his  cabin,  \ 
on  Wednesday,  \  with  an  arrow,  \  ly  an  Indian  \  of  the  Comanche  tribe:''  "  The 
same  man  that  I  came  withf  i.  e.,  with  whom.  "The  ship  was  about  to  be 
wrecled:''  "  Anxious  for  him  to  he  caught:''  "  The  labor  of  clearing  land  depends 
on  how  much  timher  there  is  grooving  on  It:''  "  Reason  and  justice  have  been  jury- 
men since  before  Noah  was  a  sailor.'''' — Shakespeare. 

?  374.  Some  adjuncts  may  be  inverted  or  parted,  especially  in 
poetry. 

Ex.—"  Whom  was  it  given  to?''''  better,  'To  whom  was  it  given  ?"  "  From  crag 
to  crag,  the  rattling  peaks  among  ;"  i.  e.,  among  the  rattling  peaks.  "  Come,  walk 
with  me  the  jungle  through:'' — Heber. 

?  375.  Two  or  more  prepositions  may  govern  the  same  sub- 
stantive ;  two  or  more  substantives  may  be  governed  by  tbe  same 
preposition ;  and  two  or  more  adjuncts  are  often  combined  into  one. 

Ex.—"  He  walked  up  and  dawn  the  hall."  "  He  approved  of  and  voted  for, 
the  measure ;"  better,  "  He  approved  of  the  measure,  and  voted  for  U.  A 
battle  between  the  S'loux  and  the  Comanches.'"  "  He  bequeathed  his  estate^  to  his 
wife,  children,  and  friends.''  "  The  gold  ]  in  a  piece  of  quartz  from  t/ie  7mnes  of 
Californi^t:'' 


218  PREPOSITIONS. 

?  376.  An  adjunct  may  relate  to  an  object,  an  act  or  state,  or  a 
quality;  tliat  is,  it  may  modify  a  substantive,  an  adjective,  a  verb, 
or  an  adverb. 

Ex.— "Cases  in  the  mountains."  "  The  river  rises  in  the  mountains."  "  The 
river  is  clear  in  the  mountains. 

The  modified  term,  which  commonly  precedes,  is  called  the  antecedent  term ; 
and  the  governed  substantive,  the  subsequent  term^  which  may  sometimes  be  even 
a  participle,  an  infinitive,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause.      See  adjuncts,  above. 

?  377.  Adjuncts  extend  over  nearly  all  the  ground  occupied  by 
adjectives,  adverbs,  and  the  possessive  case,  and  even  beyond,  sup- 
plying their  deficiencies. 

Ex. — "A  man  of  wUdom  and  virtue''' =^ A.  wise  and  virtuous  man.  "A  ship  with-, 
out  motion''' =  A.  moticnless  ship."  "  To  stand  7ie/'6"=To  stand  in  this  place.  ^'■Ah- 
mlom's  heanty^^=The  heauty  of  Absalom.  ^^Aland  of  Uberti/.^^  No  adjective.  "To 
stand  on  the  shores  of  Mw  j^ngland.^^    No  adverb. 

?  478.  When  a  preposition  has  no  word  to  govern,  it  becomes  an 
adverb. 

Ex. — "  The  eagle  fiew  up,  then  aro'und.thQn  down  again."  "  It  fell  from  above ;" 
"It  came //"cm  within— :from  witJiout.^^  Kqtq  above,  within,  and  without,  are  per- 
haps best  parsed  as  nouns. 

?  379.  Sometimes  the  object  is  merely  omitted ;  and  sometimes 
the  antecedent  term  is  omitted,  or  there  is  none. 

Ex. — "  The  man  you  s^oke  o/";"  i.e.,  of  whom  you  spoke.  "Vengeance  on 
whoever  has  killed  him;"  *.  e.,  on  him  who.  "  Industrious  all,  from  the  youngest 
to  the  oldest ;"  i.  e.,  reckoning  from  the  youngest.  ^^ As  for  riches,  they  are  not 
worth  so  much  care  and  anxiety."  "Sold  at  the  rate  of  from  fifty  cents  to  a  dol- 
lar;" i.  e.,  of  prices  varying  from  fifty  cents  to  a  dollar  ;  or,  when  but  one  indef- 
inite thing  is  meant,  the  first  preposition  may  be  parsed  as  governing  all  the  rest 
of  the  phrase,  and  the  second  as  having  no  antecedent  term. 

?  380.  The  preposition  itself  is  sometimes  omitted ;  especially  for,  to, 
or  unto.  These  prepositions  are  usually  omitted  after  like,  unlike,  near, 
nigh,  opposite,  or  such  verbs  as  maybe  followed  in  the  active  voice  by  two 
objects ;  the  one  governed  by  the  verb,  and  the  other  denoting  the  person 
to  whom  the  act  refers, — sometimes  called,  for  distinction,  the  direct  object, 
and  the  indirect. 

Ex. — "  The  house  was  near  [to]  the  river — nearer  [to]  the  river — next  to  ours." 
"The  son  is  like  [to  or  unto]  his  father."  "  Opposite-  [to]  the  market."  "  Lend 
him  your  in-i/'e"— Lend  your  hnife  to  him. 

?  381.  Prepositions,  as  modifying  or  qualifying  words,  make  in 
part  hundreds  of  our  most  expressive  compound  words. 

Ex. — Overdhoot,  owerspread,  overthrow ;  undermmQ,  underhrxis.h.,  w/iierstrapper  ; 
-wphold,  ttjpheave ;  Jy-stander ;  aftert\io\xgh.\, ;  implant  {in-). 


Some  prepositions  show  wiiere  :  In,  on,  under,  over,  above,  before,  behind, 
below,  around,  between,  among,  by,  beyond,  at.  Some  show  whithee  :  To, 
toward,  into,  up,  down,  for.  Some  show  wuence:  Out  of,  from,  of.  Some 
show  whek  :  At,  in,  on,  after,  before.  Some  show  how  long:  During,  for,  till. 
Some  imply  contact  or  union  :  On,  upon,  with.  Some  refer  to  inner  parts : 
In,  into,  within,  among,  amid,  throujjh.  Some.,  to  outer  parts :  On,  around, 
about,  over,  to.  Some  have  opposites  :  To — from ;  over,  on — under ;  above — 
below,    beneath;    with— without ;    up — down;    for— against;     along— across  ; 


PREPosrrroNS.  ^^1$ 

through — around;  before — behind;  on — off;  before— after,  since  (time);  till- 
after  ;  within — without.  Some  are  allied  in  meaning  :  Over,  above ;  on,  upon  ; 
under,  below,  beneath;  from,  o^  out  of;  behind,  after;  across,  athwart;  about, 
around;  in,  within;  at,  by  (place);  by,  with  (means);  to,  for. 


The  prepositions  have  been  too  superficially  treated  by  most  of  our  gram- 
marians. There  is  no  object,  act,  quality,  or  condition,  not  exclusively  described 
by  otlier  words,  that  may  not  be  described  by  adjuncts  in  any  conceivable  way; 
and  hence  the  correctness,  clearness,  and  vigor  of  discourse,  depend  not  a  little 
upnift  them.  There  are  a  few  grand  ideas,  namely,  those  of  space,  time,  cause, 
means,  purpose,  manner,  &c.,  which  control  and  limit  the  mind  in  its  acquisi- 
tions, encompass  and  pervade  all  its  other  knowledge,  and  tincture  speech  uni- 
versally, but  especially  prepositions.  Hence,  nearly  all  the  prepositions  may 
express  relations  of  place;  a  smaller  number  may  be  applied  to  tim6 ;  and  a 
still  smaller  number  to  cav^se,  purpose,  means,  manner,  &c.  Some  relations  are  of 
the  external  world,  but  many  others  rather  lie  in  the  judgments  or  views  taken 
by  the  mind.  Prepositions  are  often  extended  from  the  most  obvious  relations 
of  place,  to  the  most  abstruse  and  delicate  maneiivres  of  the  mind  itself;  but,  as 
they  are  generally  extended  figuratively  (see  pp.  2G2-71)  from  relations  of  place 
to  relations  of  time,  cause,  means,  manner,  &c.,  any  meaning  apparently  different 
from  the  primitive,  generally  resembles  it,  is  readily  suggested  by  it,  or  can  be 
traced  to  it.  The  following  exposition  of  prepositions  will  be  valuable  to  the 
studious  learner. 

Most  of  the  examples  are  taken  from  Lord  Macaulay. 

A,  said  to  be  from  at,  on,  or  in,  is  now  rarely  used  as  a  separate  word,  except 
sometimes  before  a  participial  noun ;  as,  "  Towards  evening  we  went  a  fishing." 

Aboard.     "  To  go  or  be  aboard  a  ship." 

About  is  less  precise  than  a/round  or  at.  It  is  applicable  to  place,  time,  quan- 
tity, number,  acts,  and  states.  "A  girdle  about  the  waist;"  "To  be  about  the 
house;"  "To  go  about  the  country,  making  speeches;"  "J[&£>m^  noon;"  "Costs 
a^owi  so  much;"  ^^ About  a  dozen;"  "Engaged  about  one's  business;"  "Angry 
about  something;"  '■'■About  to  be  hanged" — nearness  to  an  act  not  yet  done. 

Above.  "The  room — the  stars  above  us;"  "A  tree  rising  above  the  bouse  ;'* 
"A  city  above  another  on  the  same  river  ;"  "  To  be  above  in  rank — above  suspi- 
cion ;"  "  To  feel  oneself  above  others — above  labor;"  "To  be  above  reach — above 
comprehension." 

According  to,  taken  from  music,  means  harmonizing  with.  "According  to 
reason — law — rules;"  "^ccorc^mg^  fc>  the  dictates  of  conscience;"  "■According  to 
weight — value." 

Across=  at  cross,  in  a  cross.  ^'Across  the  road — river ;"  "Arras  across 
each  other." 

After.  "  To  come  after  another ;"  "A  day  after  the  time ;"  ''After  the  de- 
bate;" ''Dogs  after  a  fox;"  "A  hankering  after  pleasure;"  ''To  inquire  after 
some  one ;"  "To  write  after  a  copy." 

Against.  »  To  sit  over  against  another ;"  "A  ladder  against  a  wall ;"  "  Be 
ready  against  to-morrow  morning;"  "Ants  provide  against  winter;"  "To  set  one 
oQconnt  against  another ;''  "To  tug  agaimi  the  stream;"  "  To  be  a^-ajrwi  nature;" 
"Against  one's  feelings ;"  "Against  law." 

Along,  following  the  length  of  "Treea  along  the  river;"  "Fringed  along 
the  edges ;"  "To  drive  cattle  along  the  road."    "Along  with"=-in  company  with. 

Amid,  amidst,  akin  to  middle.  "A  lark  reared  her  br(X)d  amid  the  corn;'* 
''  Oranges  gleaming  afuidst  leaves  and  blossoms,"  or  among ;  "  Firm  amidsi  th^ 

10* 


220  PREPOSITIONfS. 

storm,"  not  among ;  "  Undaunted  amidst  insults  and  mockeries."  Amid  usnally 
implies  quantity,  and  something  more  overwhelming  than  in ;  among,  numbei". 
"In  the  flames;  ^'Amid  the  flames." 

Among,  amongst,  akin  to  mingle  and  many.  "  Flowers  among  weeds  j" 
"  The  f  jols  among  men  ;"  ''A  tradition  among  the  Indians."      See  Between. 

Around,  round=encompassing  like  a  ring  or  like  a  globe.  It  is  local,  and 
more  precise  than  about.  ^'Around  the  neck;"  ^'Around  the  fire  ;"  ^'Around  the 
kernel;"  '^  lie  went  round  the  country,  making  speeches;"  "He  sailed  round 
the  world." 

As  to=respecting,  concerning,  in  reference  to.  ^'As  to  the  law  itself,  T  have 
nothing  to  say." 

At.  "At  the  door" — nearness  in  place;  "At  church;"  "At  nine  o'clock" — 
7iearness  in  time;  "At  the  election" — nearness  in  both  or  either;  "^i  work" — 
act;  "^^  war,"  "At  best," — state;  "To  be  at  the  expense" — nearness  and  bur- 
den; "  To  be  a<  one's  service" — nearness  and  control;  "Attorney  a^  law;"  "To 
estimate  at  a  certain  price" — nearness  in  thought,  for  judging;  ''Sold  at  a  dollar 
per  bushel" — nearness  and  exchange;  "To  take  offense  at  what  is  said" — near- 
ness, in  time,  of  the  saying  and  the  offense, — thence,  cause ;  "  To  come  at  a 
wink ;"  "  To  laugh  at  some  one  ;"  "  To  aim  at  a  mark."       See  In. 

Ath"\vart=aeross  -\-  opposition.  "  Thou  that  dar'st  advance  thy  miscreated 
front  athwart  my  way." — Alilton. 

Before=&y  and  fore.     "Before  the  house" — place;  "Before  night" — time 
".Be/ore  the  war" — action;  "  To  be  before  another  in  rank  ;"  "To  appear  btfore 
court" — -place,  and  something  more. 

Behind*  "Behind  the  house" — place;  "To  be  behind  the  curtain.';*" — 
filacer  ;  "  He  died,  and  left  no  property  behind  him" — place  and  time;  "Behind 
m  excellence;"  "The  ministry  behind  the  throne" — place  and  inferiority  or 
influence. 

Below  implies  under,  in  place,  rank,  or  quantity.  "  Beloio  the  eaves,'* 
"Below  another;"  "Below  fifty."  We  can  say,  "A  city  below  another  on  the  same 
river,"  but  not  beneath, — "Below  fifty,"  not  beneath.  "  To  be  below  considera- 
tion," is  very  different  from  "  To  be  under  consideration." 

Beneath  often  implies  greater  distance,  and  less  possibility  of  approach,  than 
below.     ''A  horrid  chasm  feeAieaiJy'i.  us;"  " He  is  fee/iea^/i  notice.'" 

Beside,  besides.  "X  tree  beside  the  river;"  "Something  besides  accom- 
plishments;" "It  is  beside  my  purpose;"  "He  is  beside  himself  "=c»m^  of  his  wits. 

BetWQen,  from  by  and  twain,  has  a  twofold  reference ;  among,  a  manifold. 
'^Between  the  house  and  the  river;"  "Between  one  and  the  rest;"  ^'Between  dawn 
and  sunrise;"  "Between  hoTpe  and  fear;"  "Two  travelers,  with  but  one  dollar 
between  them;"  "To  distinguish  between  good  and  bad."  "To  divide  between  one 
and  aTzoi/ier,"  is  correct:  "  To  divide  a>no«,gr  one  another^'' ^one  among  another; 
therefore  say,  "among  themselves:''  "To  divide  between  themselves,''  not  each 
other.  "A  combat  between  twenty  English  against  forty  I'rench;"  say,  "be- 
tween. . .  .and,  or,  of. . .  .against."  "Between  the  intellectual  and  moral  worlds" 
— Professors  Fowler  &  Gibbs  ;  better,  "Between  the  intellectual  and  the  moral 
world,"  or,  "the  intellectual  world  and  the  moral." 

Betwixt  is  rather  local ;  and  it  is  not  so  widely  extended  in  significations 
as  between.  This  word  shows  remarkably  how  variable  English  orthography  has 
been.  Its  genealogy  runs  thus :  Betwuh,  betuh,  betwy,  betwih,  betwyh,  betweoh, 
hetweohs,  betux,  betweox,  betwuxt,  betwixt. 

Beyond.  "The  liills  beyond  the  river;"  "  To  look  beyond  the  present;" 
••jBeyond  a  hundred;"  "Beyond  the  evidence;"  '^Beyond  temptation;"  "Beyorui 
reach ;"  "Beyond  comprehension." 


PREPOSITIONS.  221 

But  ia  a  preposition  when  equivalent  to  except^  and  construed  with  the  ob- 
jective case;  as,  "The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck  whence  all  hut  him  had 
fled." — Hemans.  It  is  sometimes,  however,  construed  with  the  nominative  case, 
and  is  then  a  conjunction.    *'  Should  all  the  race  of  mortals  die,  and  none  be  left 

hut  he  and  V— Scott. 

By.  "A  flower  hy  a  rivulet" — nearness  in  place]  "To  come  hy  sea" — place 
6nd  means  ;  "Related  hy  marriage,"  "Achieved  hy  valor," — means;  "To  work 
hy  day,"  "  To  be  ready  hy  morning," — time.  *'  To  take  hy  the  hand"— p^ace  and 
manner;  hence,  "To  demolish  by  cities."  "One  by  one,"  ^^ By  pairs,"  "i5y 
degrees,  '^  By  little  and  little," — manner.  ^' By  oneself  "=alone ;  "It  makes 
sense  hy  itself — of  itself- — is  complete  in  itself''  "  To  hew  a  log  by  a  line,"  "To 
travel  hy  moonlight,"  "  To  prove  by  the  Scriptures," — nearness  to  something  for 
judging  or  sanction;  thence,  "To  try  by  law,"  "  To  swear  hy  the  gods,"  "Too 
heavy  by  six  pounds."  An  act  received  is  naturally  ascribed  to  something  near, 
and  hence  hy  is  used  in  reference  to  the  agent ;  as,  "  He  was  kicked  by  a  horse." 
By  and  with  are  often  confounded.  By  rather  directs  the  mind  to  the  cause  or 
the  indirect  means ;  with  frequently  implies  accompaniment :  by  annexes  the 
agent  or  the  remoter  means;  with,  the  immediate  means  or  the  manner.  "I 
was  favorably  impressed  hy  his  remarks;"  "I  was  impressed  with  great  esteem 
for  him  ;"  "  It  was  luith  great  difficulty  that  we  succeeded;"  "He  walks  with  a 
staff  6y  moonlight;"  "Punished  with  death" — Macaulay  ;  '*  The  vermin  which  he 
could  not  kill  with  his  sword,  he  killed  by  poison" — Johnson.  "  Killed  with  a 
hmb,"  implies  an  agent  not  mentioned ;  "  Killed  hy  a  limb,"  impUes  no  other 
agent,  unless  it  denotes  place  merely;  "  Struck  with  a  palsy,"  implies  that  the 
disease  has  become  a  part  of  the  person.  When  with  would  not  express  the 
means,  hy  must  be  used:  "To  burst  with  violence" — manner;  "To  burst  hy 
violence" — means.  ^'By  the  stream,""  does  not  denote  so  close  a  union  as  "  With 
the  stream;"  hy  also  implies  authority,  as,  "Condemned  hy  the  law:"  hence, 
'^By  these  [swords]  we  gained  our  hberties,  and  with  these  we  will  defend  them." 
With  here  refers  to  the  immediate  and  instrumental  use.  Our  school  geog- 
raphies have  ^^  distinguished  for ;"  i.  e.,  the  distinction  is  caused  by  the  following 
things:  but  Macaulay  writes,  "  dcsiinguislied  hy ;"  i.  e.,  the  distinction  lies  in  the 
following  particulars. 

Concerning.  "A  law  conx^erning  religion;"  "He  spoke  concerning  virtue." 
According,  hating,  excepting,  respecting,  regarding,  pending,  touching,  etc.,  gen- 
erally show  their  participial  tinge,  and  may  sometimes  be  parsed  as  participles. 

Down.  " To  come  down  the  tree — the  river;"  "  To  live  down  town,"  hardly 
elegant. 

During.  "During  the  summer;"  said  to  be  an  inverted  mode  of  expression 
for  "The  summer^  during,"  i.  e.,  while  the  summer  lasts. 

Except  and  save  are  primarily  imperative  verbs.  Save  belongs  rather  to 
poetry ;  and  except  seems  to  be  stronger  and  more  definite  than  hut. 

For.  "  Muddy  for  several  miles"— p/oce ;  "  In  jail  for  life"— ime ;  "  To 
give  money /or  provisions" — exchange;  "Sold /or  sound;"  " To  inquh-e /or  iu- 
tbrmation" — something  in  view;  "Done /or  him;"  "To  send /or  a  doctor;" 
"  Sent  for  a  guide,"  better  as;  "  Wise  for  his  ago ;"  "Fit  for  service ;"  "Some 
were  for  the  law" — in  favor  of;  "  Honored  for  his  services" — cav^se,  past  time  ; 
•'  Equipped  for  battle" — purpose,  future  time ;  "A  man's  a  man  for  all  that"= 
notwithstanding ;  ''^ As  for  me,"  &c. ;   ^^For  me  to  go,"  &c. 

From.  "A  part /rom  the  whole ;"  "A  wind  from  the  mountains  ;"  "From 
morning  till  night;"  " To  judge /rom  the  description;"  "Secure  from  winds 
and  waves" — out  of  their  reach ;  ''  Secure  against  winds  and  waves" — able  to 
mtlista/nd  them;  "  Disabled /rom  voting,"  prospective;  "Disheartened  from 
seeing  the  obstacle3"==o/i  acco^mt  of,  retrospective. 


222  PREPOSITIONS. 

In.  "/ti  a  meadow" — circular  surrounding;  ''In  the  dumpling" — globular 
swrounding ;  ''In  a  eiiair — corner" — angular  surrounding;  ^'In  the  morning;" 
'//idebt;"  '-//chaste;"  "//i  pairs;"  "  One  m  a  dozen  ;""/«  reach  ;"  "Pleasure 
n  studying;"  ''In  all  probability;"  "Warms  mthe  sun.  refreshes  in  the  breeze" 
^by  means  of,  a  Grecism.  In  and  at  are  often  used  in  speaking  of  places  or 
residences.  In  is  more  generally  applied  to  countries  and  large  cities  ;  and  at  to 
single  houses,  small  places,  or  foreign  cities.  In  implies  enclosure,  or  something 
surrounding ;  at  rather  implies  nearness  to  a  point  or  border.  "  To  touch,  arrive, 
or  land  at  Boston ;"  "  To  live  in  St.  Louis — in  New  York — at  Saratoga — at  or  on 
the  next  farm ;"  "  To  stay  at  the  tavern;"  "  To  stop  at  or  in  the  next  town  ;" 
"  To  have  a  store  on  Broadway,  at  No.  40."  *'  This  produced  a  great  sensation, 
not  only  in  England,  but  also  at  Paris,  at  A^ienna,  and  at  the  Hague." — Macaulay. 
The  choice  often  depends  on  the  distance :  remote  places  dwindle,  in  the  mental 
vision,  to  a  mere  point;  so  that  at  becomes  sufSciently  definite.  In  is  more  de- 
finite than  at :  it  vouches  for  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  relation.  When  I  say, 
"  He  is  in  the  tavern — in  Constantinople,"  I  assume  to  know  that  he  is  within 
these  places,  and  not  outside  of  them  ;  but  when  I  say,  "  He  is  at  the  tavern — 
at  Constantinople,"  I  suggest  simply  that  he  is  somewhere  about  these  places— 
occasionally  within  them. 

Into  is  an  inverted  expression  for  to-in.  The  natural  order  is  to,  into,  in ;  to 
approaches  a  boundary,  into  passes  a  boundary,  and  in  does  not  pass  out  of  a 
boundary.  "To  step  into  a  carriage,  and  then  ride  in  it;"  "To  flow  *nto  the 
sea;"  "  Made  into  cloth;"  "  Driven  into  opposition  ;"  "Adopted  in  my  school," 
or,  "into  my  school,"  according  to  the  sense.  "To  cut  in  two;"  "To  get  on  a 
horse;"  "To  dash  to  pieces;"  "Office  up  stairs," — are  all  allowable  as  being 
figurative  (see  Metonymy  and  Synecdoche,  p.  263). 

Notwithstanding  implies  unsuccessful  opposition,  and  is  milder  than  despite. 

Of  is  used  nearly  as  much  as  all  the  other  prepositions  together.  It  gener- 
ally serves  to  limit  the  antecedent  term  by  a  subsequent  term  whose  meaning 
is  not  exhausted  or  expressed  by  the  former.  It  is  the  most  general  word  for 
showing  whence  something  coines,  or  else  to  what  it  belongs  or  pertains.  "The 
rivers  of  America"— ^/ace ;  "  Within  ten  feet  o/me ;"  "  The  first  month  of  the  year 
— ime;"  "Days  c/yore;"  "A  pitcher  made  o/ silver" — material;  "The  exploits 
of  Don  Quixote" — source;  "The  house  o/ my  father"==My  father's  house ;  "The 
brother  o/the  senator;"  "A  man  c^/ woalth"=e»cor/ipassed  hy ;  "  A  man  o/ wis- 
dom ;"  "  The  pleasure  of  thinking  of  homo'^ =drawn  from ;  "  It  makes  sense  oj 
itself '==ow^  of ;  "The  city  o/ Loudon"=conswfo'w^  of. 

On.  "  On  the  floor"— ^^oce;  "  On  the  wall;"  "On  the  ceiling;"  "  A  boat  on 
the  river ;"  "  A  city  on  the  river  ;"  "  On  the  left — right ;"  "  To  stand  on  pillars  ;" 
"Blow  ori blow;"  "To  play  ow  the  flute"— pZace  +  ;  "  On  New  Year's  Day" — 
time ;"  "  To  pay  on  sight ;"  "  She  wept  on  hearing  the  report" — time  and  cause; 
"To  keep  the  eye — the  mind  on  something;"  "Chitty  ora  Contracts;"  "To  bo 
on  the  wing" — support;  "To  rely  on  a  person's  veracity" — support;  "To  take  on 
oath ;"  "  To  live  on  fruits — hy  sowing ;"  "  To  go  on  a  voyage  ;"  "  To  be  on  fire :" 
"  My  blessing  on  you  ;"  "  To  take  pity  on  some  one  ;"  "  To  have  on  trial ;"  "  To 
wait  on  some  one ;"  "  To  be  on  hand ;"  "  To  be  on  the  alert ;"  "  On  a  sudden." 

Out  of.  "Drawn  out  of  a.  well;"  "Out  of  joint;"  "Out  of  tune;"  "  Out  of 
taste;"  "Made  ouf  o/ wax;"  "Done  om^  o/ spite." 

Over  is  allied  to  cover.  It  is  sometimes  to  on  as  a  surface  is  to  a  point. 
"Over  my  head;"  "Over  logs  and  creeks;"  "Over  a  spell  of  sickness"— an  ob- 
stacle, as  it  were,  in  the  journey  of  life ;  "To  look  ov&r  a  book ;"  "  Over  a 
month;"  "Over  a  dozen;"  "To  grieve  over  calamities;"  "To  rule  oyer  a  na- 
tion." A  higher  position  generally  gives  advantage ;  hence  superiority  is  often 
compared  to  iieight,  and  inferiority  to  lownesa. 


PREPOSITIONS.  t%9 

Since  reckons  from  a  point  of  time.       "  Since  last  Christmas." 

Till  reckons  to  a  point  of  time.       "  TiU  next  Christmas." 

Through,  ^^  Through  the  woods" — -place;  ^^  Through  many  ages" — timei 
"To  escape  through  a  crevice" — -place  and  means;  and  thus,  cause,  as,  "To  i\y 
through  fear."  Hence  through  approaches  by  and  with  so  nearly  as  to  be  otteu 
used  for  suggesting  the  intermediate  or  appointed  channel  for  eflfecting  some- 
thing.    "  I  will  send  you  the  money  through  the  bank." 

Throughout  is  a  little  more  forcible  than  through ;  signifying  through  in 
every  part,  through  to  the  very  end,  or  tlirough  and  passing  out.  "  Throughout 
the  universe — the  entire  process — the  day." 

To  implies  tendency  or  approach.  7b,  toward,  and  into,  have  something  in 
view;  along,  up,  and  dow7i,  do  not.  "  To  the  river" — an  object;  "  From  morn 
to  noon" — time;  "  To  a  dozen" — number ;  "  To  a  bushel'' — quantity ;  "Reduced 
fo poverty" — state ;  **  Led  to  slaughter" — act;  "Anxious  to  learn" — in  what  respect; 
'•  To  dance  to  the  violin" — cau^e  or  agreement.  (See  p.  184.)  To,  with  the  in- 
finitive, implies  a  closer  connection  than  in  order  to.  "Politicians  endeavor  to 
please,  in  order  to  obtain  as  many  votes  as  possible."  Here  to  and  in  order  to 
are  not  interchangeable.  To  a  question  asked  me  by  a  surveyor,  I  answer : 
"  Parallel  to ;"  "At  right  angles  with.'''' 

Toward,  towards,  less  direct  than  to.  "  Towards  me  :"  *'  Toward  noon ;" 
"  Toward  the  close  of  the  war  ;"  "  To  contribute  toward  a  sufficient  sum." 

Under.  "  t/wcZer  foot — water;"  "They  crept  aloug  under  the  walls  of  the 
fort;"  '■'■  Under  a  dozen;"  '''■Under  age;"  "To  pass  under  inspection;"  "To 
groan  under  a  burden ;"  hence  power  over, — "  To  be  under  restraint — under 
alflictions;"  "  Given  under  ray  signature" — by  my  authority;  sometimes,  "  Over 
my  signature."  "  Under  the  garb  of  friendship  ;"  "  Innocence  presented  under 
the  figure  of  a  dove." 

Up.  Up,  upon,  on,  are  analogous  to  to,  into,  in.  The  prominent  idea  of 
up  is  elevation;  o? on,  ^lace :  upon  unites  both  meanings,  and  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  stronger  term  for  on.     "  U[i  the  ladder — river."       See  On. 

With.  See  5;/ and /w.  "The  ^\w^  ivith  its  cargo;"  "  Girls  w;^^^  spark- 
ling eyes;"  "A  soldier  with  a  musket;"  "Enameled  with  flowers;"  "To  act 
with  firmness."  "  tie  died  with  a  fever,"  impUes  that  both  died :  say,  "  o/."  "  To 
dwell  in  security,"  not  iolt?h.  "  To  grow  rich  by  working,"  not  with.  "  To 
end  with  a  consonant;"  "To  end  in  a  consonant,  &c. :"  the  former  is  perhaps 
better  authorized. 

Within.  ''Within  or  in  the  house."  "Within  six  months,"  diflfers  from 
"  In  six  months."       "  Within  a  year  ago,"  not  in. 

Without.     "  Without  money — friends — beauty — hope." 

The  longer  or  fuller  prepositions  are  often  merely  a  little  more  forcible  than 
the  short  ones,  or  slightly  modify  the  sense ;  as,  Until,  amongst,  alongside,  under- 
neath, unto,  excepting. 

The  remaining  prepositions  are  most  of  them  either  poetic,  antique,  technical, 
or  comic. 

The  teacher  may  interrogate  his  pupils  thus  :    Abandoned  t    Ans.  To. 

A. — Abandoned  to;  abatement  of;  abhorrent  to,  from;  abhorrence  of;  abide 
in,  at,  with,  by ;  abominable  to;  abound  in,  with;  abridge /ro/n ;  abridgment  oj; 
absent  from  ;  abstain  from ;  abut  on,  upon ;  accede  to  ;  acceptable  to  ;  access  to  ; 
accommodate  to,  with  lodgings ;  accord  with,  a  thing  to ;  accordance  with ;  ac- 
countable to  a  person,  for  a  thing;  accuse  of ;  acquaint  with ;  acquiesce  in ;  ac- 
quit of;  adapted  to;  add  to;  address  to;  adhere  to;  adjacent  to;  adjourn  to; 
adjudge  to ;  adjust  to ;  admonish  of;  admission  to  (access),  into  (entrance) ;  ad- 
vantage over,  of;  advise  of,   to;  advocate /(3r ;  affection /ar ;  affinity  to,  wii\ 


S24  PREPOSITIONS. 

between  ;  affection /or ;  agree  with  a  person,  to  what  is  proposed,  upon  something 
determined ;  agreeable  to ;  alienate,  alien,  from ;  allude  to ;  alter  to,  alteration  in ; 
amenable  to;  analogous  to;  analogy  to,  between;  angry  with  a  person,  at  a 
thing;  annex  to;  animadvert  07i,  upon;  answer /or,  to;  antecedent  to  ;  antipathy 
to,  against;  anxious  about,  for;  apology,  apologize,  for;  appeal  to;  apply,  ap- 
plicable, to;  apprehensive  of;  appropriate  to;  approve  of;  avgne  with,  against; 
array  with,  in ;  arrive  at ;  ask  of  a  person,  for  what  is  wanted ;  aspire  to ;  assent 
to;  assimilate  to ;  associate  with;  assure  of;  atone /or;  attach  to ;  attain  to  ;  at- 
tend, attentive,  to ;  averse,  aversion,  to,  from. 

B. — Banish  from  one  place — to  another;  bare  of;  based  on,  upon;  beguile  of 
with  (the  means) ;  believe,  belief,  in,  on ;  bereave  of;  bestow  on,  upon  ;  betray 
to  a  person,  into  a  thing ;  betroth  to ;  bigoted  to ;  bind  to,  in,  upon ;  blame  for  ; 
blush  at ;  boast,  brag,  of;  border  on,  upon. 

C. — Call  on,  upon,  or  for  a  person,  at  a  house,  for  something ;  capable  of; 
capacity /or;  careless,  careful,  of,  in,  about;  carp  at;  catch  at;  caution  against; 
certify  fo ;  change  for,  to,  into ;  charge  on  or  against  a  person,  with  a  thing ;  clear 
of;  coaleacQ  with ;  coincide  with;  commnne  with ;  commute  (a  punishment)  to, 
for ;  commit  to  ;  communicate  to,  with ;  compare  to  (to  liken  unto),  with  (to  view 
in  connection  with) ;  compelled  to  ;  comply,  comphance,  with ;  concede  to  ;  con- 
ceive of;  concur  with  a  person,  in  a  measure,  to  an  effect;  condemned  for  a 
crime,  to  a  punishment;  condescend  to ;  conduce  to;  confer  on,  upon;  confide  in; 
conform,  conformable,  to,  with;  congenial  to,  with;  congratulate  on,  upon;  con- 
-secrate  to ;  consent  to ;  consign  to ;  consist  of  (composed  of),  in  (comprised  in), 
with  (to  agree) ;  consistent  with ;  consonant  with ;  contend  vjith,  against ;  contest 
with  ;  contiguous  to ;  contrast  with ;  contrary  to ;  contradistinction  to  ;  conver- 
sant with  persons,  in  things  {about  and  among  are  inelegant) ;  convert  to,  into  ; 
convict  of;  convince  of;  copy  after  actions,  from  things ;  correspond  with  (con- 
sistent), to  (answering) ;  correspondence  with,  to ;  cured  of. 

D. — Deal  in,  by,  with ;  debar /rom,  of ;  decide  on,  upon;  defend  (others) /rom, 
(ourselves)  against ;  deficient  in ;  defraud  of ;  demand  of ;  denounce  against  a 
person;  depend,  dependent,  on,  upon;  deprive  of;  derived /row ;  derogate /wn ; 
derogatory  to;  derogation /ro7?i,  to;  descended /ro?n;  desirous  o/;  desist /ro?w; 
despair  o/;  despoil  of;  destined  to;  destitute  of;  detach /row;  detract  from; 
deviate  from;  devolve  on,  upon;  devote  to;  dictate  to;  die  of  a  disease,  by  an 
instrument,  or  by  violence,  for  another ;  differ  with  a  person  in  opinion  ;  differ, 
diflerent,  from;  difficulty  in;  diminish /rom ;  diminution  of;  disagree  with,  to 
something  proposed ;  disagreeable  to ;  disabled  from ;  disappointed  of  wliat  I 
fiiiled  to  get,  in  something  obtained;  disapprove  of ;  discourage  from;  discou- 
ragement to;  disengaged /rom ;  disgusted  at,  with;  dislike  to;  dismission /rom  ; 
disparagement  to;  dispose  of;  disposed  to  (inclined),  for;  dispossess  of;  dis- 
qualify for,  from ;  dispute  with ;  dissatisfied  with ;  dissent  from ;  distinct,  in  dis- 
tinction,/rom ;  distinguish /rom,  Z*eiM;ee«. ;  distrustful  o/;  divested  o/;  divide  6e- 
tween  two,  among  more;  dote  on ;  doubt  of,  about;  dwelUn,  at,  on. 

B.— Eager  ira,  for,  after;  embark  in,  for;  embellished  wiY/i ;  emerged /ro?» ; 
employ  in,  on,  upon,  about;  enamored  of  with;  encounter  with;  encouragement 
to  ;  encroach  on,  upon ;  endeared  to ;  endeavor  after  a  thing ;  endowed,  endued, 
with;  engaged  in  (work),  with,  for ;  enjoin  on,  upon;  enter,  entrance,  on,  upon, 
into ;  envious  of,  at ;  equal  to,  with ;  equivalent  to ;  espouse  to ;  estimated  at , 
estranged  from ;  exception  from,  to,  against ;  exclude,  exclusion,  from ;  ex- 
clusive of;  expelled /rom;  expert  in,  at;  extracted /row ;  expressive  of 

F- — Fall  under  notice,  &c. ;  familiar  to  me,  I  am  familiar  with ;  fawn  on,  upon  ; 
feed  on,  upon;  ^^\\iwith,  against,  for;  tilled  with;  followed  by;  fond  of;  fondness 
for;  foreign  to.  from;  formed  from  (another  word);  founded  upon,  on,  in;  free 
from;  friendly  to,  towards;  frightened  at;  frown  at,  upon;  fruitful  in,  of; 
full  of. 


PREPOSITIONS.  225 

O. — Grlad  o/,  at — applied  sometimes  to  what  concerns  another;  glance  at, 
upon  ;  glow  with ;  grapple  with ;  grateful  to  a  person,  for  a  lavor ;  grieve  at,  for ; 
guard  agaitist. 

H. — Hanker  a/ifer ;  happen  to,  on;  healed  of;  hinder /rom;  hissai;  hold  o;i, 
of,  in. 

I. — Immersed  in ;  impatient  at,  for,  of;  impenetrable  to,  by ;  impervious  to ;  im- 
pose on,  upon ;  inaccessible  to  ;  incentive  to ;  incorporate  with,  into  ;  inconsistent 
with ;  inculcate  on,  upon ;  independent,  independently,  of;  indulge  with  occa- 
sionally, in  habitually ;  indulgent  to ;  influence  over,  on,  with ;  inform  of,  about, 
concerning ;  initiate  into,  in;  inquire  of,  after,  for,  into;  inroad  into;  insensible  to, 
of;  inseparable /rom ;  insinuate  into;  insist  ore,  upon;  inspection  w<o,  over;  in- 
struct in ;  intent  on,  upon ;  interfere,  intermeddle,  with  ;  intermediate  between ; 
intervene  between ;  introduce  into  a  place,  to  a  person  ;  intrude  on,  upon,  into  some- 
thing enclosed ;  inured  to ;  invested  with,  in, 

J. — Jealous  o/;  join  with,  to. 

K. — Knock  at,  on;  known,  unknown,  to. 

Is. — Laden  with ;  lame  of;  land  at;  lean  on,  upon,  against;  level  with;  liberal 
of,  to ;  liken  to ;  live  in,  at,  with,  on,  upon ;  long  for,  after ;  look  on  (in  order  to 
8ee),  for  (in  order  to  find),  after — to  follow  witii  the  eye ;  long  for,  after. 

M. — Made  of;  marry  to ;  meddle  with;  mediate  between;  meditate  on,  upon ; 
martyr /or;  mihtate  against;  mingle  with;  minister  to ;  mistrustful  of;  mix  with. 

N. — Necessary-  to,  for ;  need  of;  neglectful  of;  negotiate  with. 

O. — Obedient  fo;  object  to,  against;  observant,  observation,  o/;  obtrude  on, 
upon ;  offend  against ;  offensive  to ;  omitted  from ;  operate  on,  upon ;  opposition 
to ;  overwhelmed  with,  by. 

P. — Part/rom,  with ;  partake  of;  participate  in,  of;  partial  to ;  partiality  to,  for ; 
patient  in,  with,  of;  paj  for,  to,  with;  peculiar  to ;  penetrate  into ;  persevere  in; 
pertinent  to  ;  pitch  upon,  on ;  pleasant  to ;  pleased  with ;  plunge  into ;  possessed 
of;  prefer  to,  before,  above;  preferable  to;  preference  to,  over,  before,  above;  prefix 
to;  prejudice  a^ai/i-s^ ;  prejudiciaHo  ;  preserve /rom;  preside  over;  pressor,  upon; 
presume  on,  upon ;  present  things  to  a  person  ;  pretend  to ;  prevail  on,  upon,  with, 
(to  persuade,)  over  or  against  (to  overcome) ;  prevent  from ;  prey  on,  upon  ;  prior 
to;  productive  of ;  profit  by ;  profitable  to;  prone  to ;  pronounce  against  a  person, 
091  a  thing;  protect  others /rom,  ourselves  against;  protest  agaiiist ;  proud  o/; 
provide  witli,  for,  against ;  purge  of,  from ;  pursuant  to ;  pursuance  of 

Q. — Quarrel  with ;  quarter  on,  upon,  among ;  questioned  on,  upon,  by. 

R. — Reckon  on,  up)on,  loith ;  recline  on,  upon;  reconcile  to  (friendship),  with 
(consistency);  recover  from;  reduce  to,  under  (subjection);  reflect  on,  upon;  re- 
frain from ;  to  have  regard  for,  to  pay  regard  to,  in  or  with  regard  to ;  rejoice  at, 
in;  relation  to  ;  reh.sh  of,  for ;  (see  taste;)  release,  relieve, /ro?n ;  rely  on,  upon; 
remark  on,  upon ;  remit  to ;  remove  from ;  repent  of;  replete  with;  reproached 
fyr ;  resemblance  to,  between;  resolve  07i,  upon;  rest  in,  at,  on,  upon;  respect  to, 
in  or  with  respect  to;  restore  to;  restrain /rom;  retire  from;  return  to;  rise 
above ;  rich,  poor,  in ;  rid  of;  rob  of;  rove  about,  over ;  rub  against ;  rule  over. 

S. — Satiate,  saturate,  with ;  save  f-om ;  seek  for,  after ;  share  in,  of,  with  an- 
other; send  to,  for ;  sick  of;  significant  o/;  similar  to;  sink  into,  in,  beneath;  sit 
on,  upon,  in;  skillful  in;  smile  at,  on,  upon;  snap,  snatch,  sneer,  at;  solicitude 
about,  for ;  sorry  for ;  stay  in,  at,  with;  stick  to,  by ;  strip  of;  strive  witfi,  against; 
subject  to ;  submit,  submissive,  to ;  substitute  for ;  subtract  from ;  subside  into ; 
suitable  to,  for ;  surprised  at ;  suspected  of  by ;  swerve  from  ;  sympathize  with. 

T. — Taste  of  something  enjoyed,  taste  (=«desire  or  capacity) /or;  tax  with 
something  done,  for  something  in  view ;  tend  to,  towards ;  thankful  of,  about, 
vpon^  on ;  touch  ai,  on,  upon ;  transmit  to  ■  troublesome  to ;  true  to  ;  trust  in,  to. 


226  PREPOSITIONS. EXERCISES. 

XT. — Unite  with^  something  to;  unison  with;  useful /or,  io. 

V. — Yalue  upon,  on ;  variation  in  a  plan ;  vest  in  a  person,  with,  in,  a  thing ; 
void  of. 

"W. — Wait  on,  upon,  for,  at;  want  o/;  weary  of;  weep  at,  far;  witness  of; 
worthy,  unworthy,  of. 

T. — Yearn  /or,  towards ;  yield  to ;  yoke  with,  to. 

The  same  preposition  that  is  required  after  a  primitive  word,  is  generally  re- 
quired after  its  derivatives ;  as,  "  To  comply  wi/i,"  "Incompliance  wiih;'^  but, 
"  Dependent  o«,"  "  Independent  o/."  What  preposition  should  be  used,  often 
depends  on  the  following  word,  as  well  as  on  the  preceding ;  as,  "  To  speak  to 
an  audience  ;"  "  To  speak  about  the  war  ;"  "  To  speak  with  eloquence." 


EXERCISES. 
Examples  to  be  Analyzed  and  Parsed. 

Ihrse  tJu  prepositions  and  the  adverls: — 

1. 
The  waters  issued  from*  a  cave,  and  spread  into  a  liquid  plain.  The 
stars  retire  at  the  approach  of  day.  We  searched  for  violets  on  yonder 
hill.  A  plain  path  leads  through  the  bottom,  between  the  river  and  the 
bluffs.  The  Rhone  flows  out'''  from''  among  the  Alps.  As  to  the  ex- 
penses, we  will  help  to  defray  them.  From  virtue  to  vice,  the  prog- 
ress is  gradual. 

2. 
Washington  died  at  his  residence,  on  the  19th  of  December,  1797,  and 
was  buried  near  the  Potomac,  among  his  relatives.  The  robin  and  the 
wren  are  flown,  and  from  the  shrub  the  jay.  From  crag  to  crag,  the 
rattling  peaks  among,  leaps  the  live  thunder.  Hold  up'^  the  flag.  Turn 
over'"  anotlier  leaf. 

The  window  jingled  in  its  crumbled  frame  ; 

And,  through  its  many  gaps  of  destitution, 
Dolorous  moans  and  hollow  sighings  came, 
Like  those  of  dissolution. — Hood. 

Overhead  the  dismal  hiss 
Of  fiery  darts  in  flaming  volleys  ^^iw— Milton. 

(a.)  Quea.What  from?  Ans.  Issued  from.  Q?*3s.  From  whatf  Ans.  From  a  cat)«. 
Etc.  (b.)  "  From  among"  is  a  complex  preposition,  it  consists  of  two  prepositions  oombiaed 
and  used  to  show  the  complex  relation  between  '•'■Jloios"  and  '■'■Alps." 

Examples  to  bo  Corrected. 

All  the  liabilities  to  error  in  regard  to  prepositions,  may  be  reduced  to  the 
following  heads : — 

1.  Choice.      2.  Position.     3.  Insertion  or  omission.     4.  Repetition, 

1.   Choice. 

In  the  use  of  prepositions,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  select  the 
most  appropriate. 

The  sultry  evening  was  followed,  at  night,  with  a  heavy  storm  of  rain.  Tlie 
Hoii  la  adapted  for  hemp  and  tobacco.       Congress  consists  in  a  Senate  and  u 


PREPOSITIONS. EXERCISES. 


227 


House  of  Representatives.  Of  what  does  happiness  consist  ?  Not  any  syllable 
in  a  word  may  take  the  accent.  In  some  derivative  words  the  e  is  omitted. 
The  e  is  left  out  in  some  of  the  derivative  words.  The  government  is  based  in 
republican  principles.  The  Saxons  reduced  the  Britons  to  their  own  power. 
Said  client  believes  that  said  judge  is  prejudiced  to  his  cause.  The  case  lias  no 
resemblance  with  the  otlier.  Some  of  the  warriors  wore  an  extra  tuft  of  feath- 
ers, in  distinction  to  those  who  had  brought  in  no  scalps.  In  contradistinc- 
tion from  the  other.  Religion  and  membership  may  differ  widely  with  each 
other.  The  judge  is  disqualified  from  deciding  in  this  case.  — disqualified 
for —  He  was  accused  with  having  acted  unfairly.  He  died  for  thirst — with 
the  bilious  fever.  Col.  Washington  was  very  ill  with  a  fever. — Irving.  You 
may  rely  in  what  I  say,  and  confide  on  his  honesty.  I  have  little  influence 
with  him.  — over  him.  These  bonnets  wore  brought  in  fashion  last  year. 
This  is  a  very  different  dinner  to  what  we  had  yesterday.  The  bird  flew  up  in 
the  tree.  Charles  let  his  dollar  drop  in  the  creek.  The  persecutions  of  these 
wretched  people  were  truly  barbarous.  — against  these —  It  is  an  affair  on 
which  I  am  not  interested.       Above  this,  who  shall  fix  a  limit  to  his  cares  ? 

He  made  the  order  in  authority  of  the  instructions  he  had  received.  — by 
authority  of- —  But  what  is  my  grief  in  comparison  of  that  whicli  she  bears  ? 
He  ended  with  a  panegyric  of  modern  sciences.  I  have  an  abhorrence  to  such 
politicians.  It  was  no  diminution  to  his  greatness.  He  came  of  a  sudden. 
About  two  months  ago,  he  went  out  of  a  fine  morning  with  a  bundle  in  his  hand. 
— Irving.  I  take  a  walk  of  evenings,  —a  walk  every  evening ;  or, — a  walk 
almost  every  evening.  He  swerved  out  of  the  true  course.  He  does  not  as- 
pire at  political  distinction.  I  was  disappointed  in  the  pleasure  of  meeting 
you.  l''here  is  no  need  for  so  much  preparation.  His  hardships  produced 
little  change  on  his  appearance.  I  have  been  to  New  Orleans,  and  I  am 
now  going  for  New  York.  We  remained  at  the  South,  in  a  little  village. 
You  will  find  me  in  No.  25,  at  Olive  Street.  He  was  eager  of  making  a  dis- 
play. — eager  to  make —  I  find  no  difficulty  of  keeping  up  with  my  class. 
— in  keeping  up — or,  find  it  no  difficulty  to  keep  up —  Among  every  class  of 
people,  self-interest  prevails.  Tliey  quarreled  amongst  one  another.  — with — 
There  is  constant  hostility  between  these  several  tribes.  He  divided  his  estate 
between  his  son,  daughter,  and  nephew.  Such  a  series  of  words  generally 
have  a  comma  between  each.  — after  each  word.  A  combat  between  twentj 
Texans  against  fifty  Mexicans.  — of .  .  .  against — or,  between  .  . .  and —  Th 
space  between  the  three  lines  is  the  area  of  the  triangle.    — within — 

2.  Position. 

1.  Adjuncts  should  be  so  placed  in  the  sentence  as  to  make  it  cor- 
rect, clear,  and  elegant. 

2.  A  needless  separation  of  the  preposition  from  the  word  which  it 
governs,  is  generally  inelegant. 

3.  Terms  that  express  time  or  measure,  should  not  be  joined,  by  a  prep- 
osition, to  a  word  which  they  are  not  designed  to  limit. 

There  we  saw  some  fellows  digging  gold  from  China.  A  Lecture  on  the 
methods  of  teaching  Geography  at  10  o'clock.  Ho  obtained  a  situation  of  great 
profit,  in  the  beginning  of  his  career.  These  verses  wore  written  by  a  young 
man  who  has  long  since  lain  in  the  grave,  for  his  amusement.  Wanted — -A 
young  man  to  take  care  of  some  horses,  of  a  religious  turn  of  mind.  He  went 
to  see  his  friends  on  horseback.  Habits  must  be  acquired  of  temperance  and 
.self-denial.  In  every  church  it  must  be  admitted  there  are  some  unworthy 
members.  The  customs  and  laws  are  very  different  from  ours  in  some  coun- 
tries.      Many  act  so  directly  contrary  to  this  method,  that,  from  a  habit  of  sav- 


2^8  PREPOSITIONS. EXERCISES. 

ing  time  and  paper,  which  they  acquired  at  the  university,  they  write  in  so 
diminutive  a  character  that  they  can  hardly  read  what  they  have  written.  Are 
these  designs  which  any  man  who  is  born  a  Briton,  in  any  circumstances  or  in 
any  situation,  ought  to  be  ashamed  or  afraid  to  avow  ?  Such  boatman  may  re- 
cover, against  such  master  or  commander,  the  wages  justly  due  him,  according  to 
the  service  rendered,  notwithstanding  such  contract  may  be  entire,  in  any  court 
having  jurisdiction. — K.  S.  of  Mo. 

Whom  did  he  give  it  to  ?  To  whom  did  he,  &c.  I  never  could  ascertain 
what  it  was  useful  for.  Whom  was  the  message  directed  to  ?  Which  of  the 
books  can  I  find  it  in  ?  How  much  did  you  send  him  to  market  with  ?  He 
rushed  into,  and  expired  in,  the  flames.  — rtished  into  the  flames,  and  expired  in 
them.  The  first  law  is  diff"erent  from,  and  much  inferior  to,  the  second.  The 
cost  of  the  carriage  was  added  to,  and  greatly  increased,  my  account. 

My  mistress  had  a  daughter  of  nine  years  old. — Smft.  (Omit  "  of;"  for  "  nine 
years''  limits  "oZd,"  and  not  "  daughter.'')  Almost  any  boy  of  tvi^elve  years  old 
knows  as  much.  They  enclosed  the  garden  with  a  wall  of  six  feet  high.  A 
monument  of  several  centuries  old.  A  room  of  twenty  feet  long  and  eighteen 
feet  wide. 

3.  Insertion  or  Omission. 

1.  We  should  not  insert  or  cinit  prepositions  so  as  to  destroy  the  proper 
connection  between  other  words.  Prepositions  should  not  be  omitted, 
when  required  by  the  sense. 

2.  Prepositions  should  not  be  inserted  or  omitted  contrary  to  long 
and  general  usage. 

It  was  to  your  brother  to  whom  I  was  mostly  indebted.  It  was  your 
brother,  &c.  It  was  in  vain  to  remonstrate.  Allow  me  to  present  you  with 
a  gold  watch.  — to  you  a — or,  you  a —  I  will  now  present  you  with  a  syn- 
opsis.— Smith'j  Gram.  The  performance  was  approved  of  by  all  who  saw  it. 
Women  are  governed  by  fancy  in  stead  of  by  reason.  It  stands  in  the  propo- 
sition introduced  by  toi,  instead  of  in  a  preceding  sentence.  — and  not  in— or 
else  allowable.  The  proper  course  of  action,  in  this  case,  is  by  assumpsit. 
— is  assumpsit.  By  a  deed  of  trust  there  will  be  a  less  troublesome  security 
than  by  a  mortgage.  A  deed  of  trust  will,  &c.  What  wen£  ye  out  for  to  see  ? 
At  about  what  time  will  you  come  again?  What  use  is  it  to  me?  The 
horned  frog  is  nearly  the  size  of  a  lizard.  The  sycamore  was  fifteen  feet  diame- 
ter. From  having  heard  of  his  distress,  I  sent  him  relief.  From  abusing  his 
constitution  in  youth,  he  became  prematurely  old.  Having  abused,  &c.  My 
business  prevented  me  attending  the  last  meeting  of  the  Society.  He  refused 
taking  any  further  notice  of  it.  — refused  to  take —  She  could  not  refrain  shed- 
ding tears.  I  shall  oppose  the  granting  this  company  any  more  privileges.  J 
bhall  oppose  the  granting  of  any  more  privileges  to,  &c.  There  was  no  disputing  the 
point. — Irving. 

The  remark  is  worthy  the  fool  that  made  it.  The  attack  is  unworthy  your 
notice.  San  Francisco  is  the  other  side  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  spring  is 
near  to  the  house.  She  sat  next  ua  He  was  banished  the  country — ex- 
pelled the  college.  Many  talented  men  have  deserted  from  the  party.  The 
court  of  France  or  England  was  to  be  the  umpire.  I  will  consider  of  your  prop- 
osition. I  admit  of  what  you  say.  You  have  anticipated  on  what  I  was 
going  to  say.  It  was  rather  the  want  of  customers  than  money  that  induced 
him  i^  abandon  his  business.  — than  that  of  money —  Ignorance  is  the  mother 
of  fear  as  well  as  admiration.  I  put  some  apples  into  the  buggy  and  my 
hat.  California  is  not  more  noted  for  its  gold  than  bears.  The  calf  followed 
on  after  its  mother.      The  passion  of  angor  leads  to  repentance.     Anger  leads, 


PREPOSITIONS. OBSERVATIONS.  220 

Ac.  Wanted — A  young  man  of  from  16  to  21  years  of  age.  The  distance  from 
before  one  ear  to  before  the  other,  is  15  inches.  (Change  the  sentence.)  He 
was  right  in  that  which  you  blame  him.  — for  which —  She  took  it  more  to 
heart  than  I  thought  for.  — than  I  thought  she  would.  Let  us  consider  the 
works  of  nature  and  art,  witli  proper  attention.  An  event  so  unexpected  to 
my  mind  and  many  others.  One  should  not  be  omitted  without  the  other. 
Tfiey  should  be  either  both  omitted  or  both  inserted.  You  will  seldom  find  a  dull 
fellow  of  good  education,  but  (if  he  happen  to  have  some  leisure  on  his  hands) 
will  turn  his  head  to  one  of  those  two  amusements  for  all  fools  of  eminence 
politics  or  poetry. — British  Essayists.     — to  politics  or  to  poetry. 

4.  Repetition. 

A  preposition,  relating  to  a  series  of  objects,  must  be  used  but  once 
before  the  entire  series,  or  be  repeated  before  each  term  of  the  series. 

He  is  a  man  of  sagacity,  experience,  and  of  honesty.  By  industry,  by  econ- 
omy, and  good  luck,  he  soon  accumulated  a  fortune.  Their  hearts  are  torn  by 
the  worst,  most  troublesome  and  insatiable  of  all  passions, — by  avarice,  by  ambi- 
tion, by  fear,  and  jealousy. — Burke. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1,  What  preposition  is  most  appropriate  in  any  eriven  instance,  does  not  always 
depend  on  the  preceding  or  on  the  following  term,  but  on  the  relation  of  the  terms, 
or  on  the  view  that  is  taken  of  them.  A  different  preposition  may  sometimes  express 
the  meaning  as  well,  or  more  forcibly;  or  it  may  be  sufficiently  detiuite  by  the  aid 
of  some  principle  in  the  Figures,  to  suggest  the  relation  intended.  To  be  able  to 
use  prepositions  and  conjunctions  rightly,  requires  not  only  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  them,  but  also  an  extensive  and  sagacious  insight  into  the  whole  fabric  of  lan- 
guage. 

2«  Adiuncts  may  often  be  variously  placed  in  sentences,  though  they  should 
generally  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  to  which  they  relate.  A  trouble- 
some adjunct  is  sometimes  placed  most  advantageously  at  the  beginning,  seldom 
at  the  end.  Adjuncts  should  not  be  needlessly  inverted.  "  Of  whom  did  you  buy 
it?"  is  a  better  expression  than  "  Whom  did  you  buy  it  ofp''  But  when  the  relative 
is  omitted,  the  preposition  must  be  put  at  the  end  ;  as,  "  I  have  nothing  to  tie  him 
«;*^7^,"  i.  e.,  I  have  nothing  with  which  to  tie  him.  To  place  an  object  common  to 
both,  after  a  transitive  verb  and  a  preposition,  or  after  two  or  more  prepositions 
separated  by  several  intervening  words,  sometimes  produces  a  disagreeable  hiatus 
in  the  sense.  When  the  objective  term  is  short,  it  is  better  to  place  it  after  the  first 
governing  word,  and  its  pronoun  after  the  second;  but  when  it  is  long,  it  may  be 
allowed  to  stand  after  all  tlie  governing  words.  "  Here  he  saw,  and  was  soon  after 
surrounded  by,  several  Indians  f  better,  "Here  he  saw  several  Indians,  ly  whom 
he  was  soon  afterwards  surrounded."  "  The  second  proposal  was  different  from, 
and  inferior  to,  the  first  f  better,  "  The  second  proposal  was  different /rom  the 
f,rst,  and  inferior  to  it:'  "  He  has  quarreled  with  and  betrayed  every  friend^  that 
he  ever  had.  "  He  was  descended /rom,  and  allied  to,  some  of  the  best  families  of 
the  State." 

We  may  say,  "A  child  of  six  years,"  or,  "A  child  of  six  years  of  age,"  or  rather. 
*'A  child  six  years  old;"  but  not,  "A  child  of  six  years  old,"  for  "  six  years" 
should  modify  "  old,"  and  not  "  child."  A  necessary  modifying  phrase  or  clause 
may  sometimes  be  allowed  to  separate  the  adjunct  from  the  preceding  term  ;  as, 
*'  In  this  dialect  we  find  written  nearly  the  whole  of  what  remains  to  us  of  ancient 
Greek  literature."— Cw%.  Adjuncts,  in  regard  to  position  as  well  as  signification, 
are  much  like  adverbs  and  adjectives. 

When  not  emphatically  distinguished,  the  indirect  object  usually  precedes 
the  other ;  as,  "  Give  me  tlie  knife  :"  but  when  placed  after  the  other,  tlie  preposi- 
tion must  be  expressed ;  as,  "  Give  the  knife  to  me''  [not  to  some  other  person]. 

3.  When  the  insertion  or  the  omission  of  the  preposition  would  cause  a  slight 
vai-iation  in  the  sense,  we  should  be  very  careful  to  select  the  most  appropriate  ex- 


230  CONJUNCTIONS. 

pression.  To  know  diffiirs  from  to  Ttnow  of'  and  to  meet,  from  to  meet  toUTi.  "  I  m«i 
vnth  an  old  friend,  who  showed  me  all  the  curiositiea  of  the  city."  "  I  met  the 
stranger,  but  passed  on  without stoppinpr."  For  can  not,  accordinff  to  modern, 
usage,  be  properly  used  before  the  infinitive.  "What  went  ye  out /or  to  see  T"" 
should  be,  "  What  Avent  ye  out  to  see  V  When  the  antecedent  term  relates  to  two 
or  more  adjuncts  after  it,  the  preposition  must,  in  many  cases,  be  repeated,  to 
show  this  common  relation  ;  as.  "  Keligion  is  a  comfort  in  youth  as  well  as  old 
age."  — as  in  old  age.  "  Wealtn  is  more  conducive  to  wickedness  than  piety." 
— than  to  piety. 

4.  Judicious  repetition  adds  sometimes  mucb  to  the  vigor  and  solemnity  of  the 
sentence.  "This  bill,  though  rejected  here,  will  make  its  way  to  the  public,  to  the 
nation,  to  the  remotest  wilds  of  America." — Chatham.  "  All  his  talents  and  virtues 
did  not  save  \\\mfrom  unpopularity— //"om  civil  •^'AX—from  a  prison— ^/Vowi  a  bar — 
-^rom  a  scaflfold  !" — Macaulay.  To  avoid  the  tediousness  caused  by  placing  many  ob- 
jects after  the  same  preposition,  or  by  repeating  the  same  preposition  very  often,  a 
Jong  series  of  terms  is  sometimes  elegantly  separated  into  groups,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence:  "  I  could  demonstrate  that  the  whole  of  your  political  conduct  has 
been  one  continued  series  of  weakness,  temerity,  and  despotism  ;  of  blundering  ig- 
norance and  wanton  negligence ;  and  of  the  most  notorious  servility,  incapacity, 
and  corruption." — Chatham. 

11.    CONJUNCTIONS. 

?  382.  A  conjmictioii  is  a  word  that  joins  something  to 
another  part  of  the  discourse,  and  shows  how  the  parts  so  connected 
are  viewed  with  respect  to  each  other. 

Ex.—"  The  chain  will  gall,  though  wreathed  with  roses."  "7/ you  would  enjoy 
the  fruit,  pluck  not  the  blossom."  "  John  and  James  are  happy,  hecause  they 
are  good.''  > 

?  383.  Two  conjunctions  are  sometimes  combined,  and  some 
phrases  are  customarily  used  as  conjunctions. 

Ex. — '■'■And  yet  I  would  not  get  riches  thus,  eoen  if  I  were  a  beggar."  "  John, 
as  well  as  Arthur,  must  be  punished,  inasmuch  as  they  have  both  been  dis- 
obedient." But  when  the  words  of  a  phrase  can  be  parsed  as  well  according  to 
their  literal  meaning,  or  when  the  conjunctions  have  each  a  separate  influeuce  over 
the  sentence,  they  should  be  parsed  separatelv.  "A  man's  a  man  for  all  that.'' 
'■'■But,  if  he  fails,  all  is  lo3t"=^Mi!  all  is  lost,  t/he  fails. 

?  Conjunctions  maybe  divided  into  three  chief  classes;  coordi- 
nate, subordinate,  and  corresponding. 

?  384.  A  coordinate  conjunction  connects  parts  of  equal  rank, 
or  parts  of  which  one  does  not  modify  the  other. 

?  385.  A  ^subordinate  conjunction  connects  parts  of  unequal 
rank,  or  parts  of  which  one  modifies  the  other. 

?  386.  A  corre^pondiugp  conjunction  suggests  another  con- 
junction, and  assists  it  in  connecting  the  same  parts. 

Ex.— And,  but,  or,  nor  ;  if,  that,  because,  therefore ;  either— or,  neither— nor. 
Ihe  corresponding  conjunctions  are  included  in  the  other  classes,  and  are  easily 
distinguiaheM  ;  the  coordinate  conjunctions  are  all  the  others,  except  the  subordi- 
nate ;  and  the  Bubordmate  are  tiiose  which  join  on  parts  that  have  the  sense  of  sub- 
stantives, atliectiyes,  or  adverbs,  or  that  answer  to  the  questions  implying  these 
elements.  "7%a(!_he  is  strictly  honest,  is  true."  What  is  true?  "'The  belief 
that  the  soul  18  immortal."  What  belief?  "I  came  thai  I  might  hear  him." 
Came  why  t  ° 

\  387.  And^  or^  and  nor,   are  the  conjunctions  most  frequently 


CONJUNCTIONS.  231 

used  for  connecting  single  words.  And  takes  all  together ;  or,  one 
at  a  time,  or  else  any  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest;  and  nor,  one 
at  a  time,  and  negatively. 

Ex.—"  Bring  your  book,  slate,  and  atlas."  "  Brin^  your  book,  slate,  or  atlas." 
"God  bids  the  ocean  roar,  or  bids  its  roaring  cease."  ' "  The  house  has  neither 
doors  nor  windows." 

?  388.  But,  if,  and  that,  are  the  next  most  important  conjunc- 
tions, and  they  are  mostly  used  in  connecting  propositions.  But 
implies  opposition  of  meaning;  if.  something  conditional ;  and  that 
is  often  a  sort  of  handle  to  a  group  of  words  conceived  as  a  whole. 

Ex. — "Milton  has  fine  descriptions  of  morning;  but  not  so  many  as  Shake- 
speare." "Tjf' spring  has  no  blossoms,  autumn  will  have  no  fruit."  "  It  is  strange 
tJiat  he  never  writes  to  us." 

?  389.  One  conjunction  may  sometimes  be  used  in  place  of  an- 
other ;  but  never  when  a  meaning  different  from  the  one  intended, 
can  be  inferred. 

Ex. — "  I  know  him,  for  I  went  to  school  with  him."  "  I  know  him,  heeause  I 
went  to  school  Avith  him,"  "  God  bids  the  ocean  roar,  or  bids  its  roarin?  cease." 
"  God  bids  the  ocean  roar,  and  bids  its  roaring  cease."  "  He  sowed  little,  and 
reaped  much."  "  He  sowed  little,  but  reaped  much."  "  Conjunctions  connect 
words  and  sentences  together,"  should  be,  "Conjunctions  connect  words  or 
sentences." 

?  390.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  elegance,  or  vigor,  conjunctions 
are  sometimes  omitted,  when  the  mind  can  connect  the  parts  and  see 
their  dependence. 

Ex. — "'Twas  certain  [tJiat]  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too."     "  Had  I  been  at 
home,  you  should  have  staid"  =7/"  I  had  been  at  home,  you  should  have  staid. 
"  The  woods  are  hushed,  [and]  the  waters  rest, 
[And]  The  lake  is  dark  and  still." — Mrs.  Hemam. 
"  The  king  to  Oxford  sent  a  troop  of  horse  ; 
[  For\  The  Tories  own  no  argument  but  force." 

?  391.  Conjunctions  are  usually  first  omitted,  and  then  expressed  ; 
other  words  are  usually  first  expressed,  and  then  omitted. 

Ex. — John,  [and]  James,  and  Thomas,  were  drowned.  You  may  go,  or  \yov, 
may\  stay. 

?  392.  The  conjunction  is  sometimes  used  where  it  is  usually 
omitted. 

1.  At  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  to  make  its  introduction  less 
abrupt ;  2.  In  the  body  of  a  sentence,  when  the  speaker  moans  to 
dwell  on  particulars,  in  order  that  the  hearer  may  duly  appreciate 
what  he  says. 

Ex. —    '■'■And  tell  me,  I  charge  you,  ye  clan  of  my  spouse. 

Why  fold  ye  your  mantles,  why  cloud  ye  your  brows  V— Campbell. 

"  Italy  teems  with  recollections  of  every  kind ;  for  courage,  and  wisdom,  and 
power,  and  arts,  and  science,  and  beauty,  and  music,  and  desolation  have  all  made 
it  their  dwelling-place."      See  also  p.  234. 

?  393.  When  conjunctions  connect  words  or  phrases,  these  are 
nearly  always  in  the  same  construction. 

Ex. — "J/ary,  Jane,  and  Alke^  \  went  into  the  garden,  and  brought  some  large^ 
ripe,  and  juicy  peaches."     Here  the  connected  nouns  are  nominatives  to  the  samfl 


232  CONJUNCTIONS. 

verbs,  the  connected  verbs  or  phrases  have  the  same  subject,  and  the  connected 
adjectives  quality  the  same  noun. 

Most  of  the  conjunctions  have  evidently  emigrated  from  other 
parts  of  speech. 

Ex. — Both,  either,  that,  adj.;  then,  yet,  as,  adv.;  except,  if  (=give),  provided,— 

seeing,  verbs.  . . 

•■'1 

Connectives  may,  in  general,  be  divided  into  pure  conjunctions, 
conjunctive  adverbs,  conjunctive  phrases,  and  conjunctive  or  relative 
pronouns. 

And  is  the  chief  conjunction,  and  implies  addition.  It  either  connects  parts 
that  may  be  referred  separately  to  a  third,  or  it  connects  parts  that  must  be  re- 
ferred conjointly  to  a  third.  To  avoid  this  latter  sense,  we  must  sometimes  uso 
or  or  some  other  connective.  "  John  and  James  study"==John  studies,  and  James 
studies.  "John  and  Kate  are  a  smiling  couple;"  not,  John  is  a  smiling  couple, 
and  Kate  is  a  smiling  couple.  "  Conjunctions  connect  words  aad  sentences,"  may 
mean,  "Conjunctions  connect  words  to  sentences;"  hence  we  should  say,  ''Con- 
junctions connect  words  or  sentences." 

As.  '■'■As  you  have  come,  I  will  go  with  you"==»since.  "  You  are  welcome 
OS  flowers  in  May" — co^mparison.  "A  letter  represents  an  elementary  sound  ; 
as,  a,  b,  c ;"  i.  e.,  such  a  sound  as  a,  b,  or  c,  represents.  "  This  is  your  duty  as  an 
instructor" — apposition  And  so,  perhaps,  in  this  somewhat  anomalous  sentence, 
"England  can  spare  such  men  as  him" — Brougham,  it  is  best  to  parse  ?iim  as  in 
apposition  with  men,  being  comprised  in  it.  As  should  be  used  after  such  im- 
plying similarity  or  comparison,  and  soraethnes  after  same  used  in  the  sense  of 
siich.  As  should  be  used  before  the  infinitive  expressing  a  consequence.  ''  l^& 
behaved  so  badly  as  to  be  expelled"=!!/tai  he  was  expelled.  As,  before  a  parti- 
ciple, sometimes  implies  cause,  or  points  to  the  special  view  to  be  taken.  "  He 
was  tried  as  having  passed  counterfeit  money."  "  He  was  represented  to  us 
as  being  well  educated  in  mathematics."  "The  soldiers  were  unprovided,  as 
were  also  the  officers"=anci  so.  As — as,  as — so,  so — as,  such — as,  imply  com- 
parison. 

Although.     See  Though. 

Becanse=.by  cause  of.  "  The  water  is  cool,  becaicse  I  put  ice  into  the 
pitcher" — natural  cause.  "  The  water  is  cool,  because  there  is  moisture  on  the 
pitcher" — logical  cause,  reason.  The  one  shows  why  it  is  so,  and  the  other  why 
I  know  it.     "A  man  should  not  be  despised  because  he  is  poor." 

As  is  most  incidental,  or  takes  the  slightest  notice  of  an  admitted  cause;  since 
is  more  formal  and  serious,  and  invites  attention  to  the  alleged  cause  or  reason ; 
for  is  less  formal  than  because ;  because  is  the  most  formal  and  expressive  word  ; 
inasmuch  as  implies  an  inference  drawn  only  to  the  extent  of  a  limited  cause. 

Both — a»(Z— the  one  as  well  as  the  other ;  not  only  the  one,  but  also  the 
other. 

But.  "Wide  will  wear,  but  narrow  will  tear"=.ow  the  contrary.  "He  never 
could  have  been  elected,  but  by  my  exertions  in  his  behalf "=»e;xcep^.  "I  could 
not  but  notice  how  nmch  he  was  confu3od"=c;o  otherwise  than.  "The  postboy 
is  not  so  tired  but  that  ho  can  whistle"( — Gr.  BRows)=-that not. 

But  is  either  a  pure  adversative  or  a  reserving  adversative ;  however  is  mUder, 
takes  the  least  notice  of  objections,  or  simply  waives  thom ;  yet  admits  to  some 
extent,  but  holds  on  to  some  weighty  offset  or  obstacle ;  still  implies  that  the 
position  is  unmoved  after  all ;  notwithstanding  braves  all  opposition;  and  never- 
theless is  the  strongest  term,  implying  that  the  position  is  not  weakened  iu 
the  least. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  233 

£ither  corresponds  to  or ;  and  neither,  to  nor.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
apply  them  to  more  than  two.  The  connected  parts  should  be  equally  full,  and 
as  nearly  alike  as  they  can  conveniently  be.  This  last  remark  applies  also  to 
both,  and  sometimes  to  whether. 

Except.  "  He  took  no  further  notice  of  him,  except  when  he  happened  to 
meet  him''=iake  out.  ''Except  ye  be  born  again,  ye  can  not  enter  the  kingdom 
of  lieaven"==i    ' 


For  has  all  the  meanings  of  because,  except  the  last.       See  Because. 

If,  derived  from  give==gTant,  allow.  ''If  it  continue  to  rain,  the  river  will 
rise" — natural  consequence.  "If  Virgil  was  the  better  artist,  Homer  was  the 
greater  genius" — logical  consequence.  "  It  has  not  been  decided  if  the  war  is  to 
continue  or  not;"  better,  whether.  If  the  condition  is  granted,  the  inference  is 
established  ;  thus,  "//  A=B,  C=D ;  A=B ;  therefore  C==D."  "If  ^schines 
joined  in  the  public  rejoicing,  he  is  inconsistent;  if  he  did  not,  he  is  unpatriotic; 
but  he  either  joined  or  did  not  join,  therefore  he  is  either  inconsistent  or  un- 
patriotic."— Demosthenes.  Such  an  argument  is  called  a  dilemma.  There  is 
sometimes  nice  choosing  between  if  and  when.  When  always  has  a  tincture  of 
time  ;  if,  never.  "A  diphthong  is  proper  if  both  the  vowels  are  sounded  ;"  not, 
"A  diphthong  is  proper  when  both  the  vowels  are  sounded;"  for  the  latter  may 
imply  that  the  same  diphthong  is  sometimes  proper,  and  so.netimes  improper. 

Lest.  "I  will  write  to  him,  lest  he  neglect  my  business"=^^ai{  not.  "  Cain's 
apprehensions  were  excited,  lest  he  should  meet  the  retribution  of  his  crime"=- 
for  fear  that.    "Afraid  lest" — Johnson  ;  "  Fearful  lest^' — Prescott  ;   better,  that. 

"Moreover  and  furthermore  appear  to  connect  only  paragraphs." — G.  W. 
Gibbs.  "Moreover,  by  them  is  thy  servant  warned." — Bible.  This  is  generally, 
though  not  always,  true. 

Nevertheless.  "  It  is  true  that  Homer  sometimes  nods ;  nevertheless,  he  is 
still  the  greatest  of  ancient  poets." 

NotAvithstanding.  "  Great  quantities  of  grain  were  raised,  notwithstanding 
the  soil  is  so  poor." 

Or  is  either  exclusive  or  diMributive.  "  The  punishment  is  $100,  or  imprison- 
ment in  jail  for  three  months  ;"  not  both.  "  Sheep  are  white  or  black;"  i.  e., 
some  are  white,  and  some  are  black.  "  The  relative  pronoun  is  resumptive  or 
restrictive ;  i.  e.,  sometimes  resumptive,  and  sometimes  restrictive.  Or  may 
imply  either  a  difference  in  things,  or  merely  a  difference  in  words.  "  In  a  cabin 
or  in  a  palace  ;"  "In  an  Indian  hut,  or  wigwam."  In  this  latter  sense,  either 
can  not  be  used ;  and  hence  either  is  often  used  or  needed  to  exclude  this  latter 
sense.  Sometimes  else  is  added  to  or,  for  the  same  purpose.  To  avoid  the  am- 
biguous sense  of  or,  lawyers  use  alias,  when  there  is  a  mere  change  of  names. 
See  Whereas. 

N  either  is  the  proper  correlative  of  nor ;  sometimes  it  is  used  as  a  correla- 
tive to  other  negatives,  and  sometimes  it  is  used  as  an  independent  conjunction. 
"  She  is  neither  handsome  nor  amiable."  "  My  brows  become  nothing  else,  nor 
that  well  nei^/ier." — Shak.  "Be  not  too  tamo  neither." — Shak.  "He  had  no 
money,  neither  could  he  find  any  employment."  Whether,  in  two  of  the  fore- 
going examples,  either  or  neither  should  be  used  after  nor,  custom  has  not  decided 
as  yet,  though  I  incline  to  think  neither  should  be  considered  the  proper 
strengthening  or  correlative  word. 

Nor.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  or  or  nor  should  be  used 
to  continue  a  negative  sense  after  a  preceding  negative.  Usage  seems  to  give 
the  preference  to  nor ;  especially  when  the  parts  connected  are  long,  or  em 
phatically  distinguished,  or  do  not  have  a  common  dependence  en  the  firat  negsv 
live.  "  The  King  has  no  arbitrary  power  to  give  him ;  your  Lordships  have 
not ;  nor  the  Commons ;  nor  the  whole  Legislature." — Burke.     "  Nevf-r  cal'im- 


234  CONJUNCTIONS. 

niate  any  man,  nor  give  the  least  encouragement  to  calumniators."  Here  or 
could  not  have  been  used.  "  Yet  Paul  did  not.  waste  all  his  hours  in  this  idle 
vaporing,  nor  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table." — Prescott.  "But  not  thieves;  'oor 
robbers;  nor  mobs;  nor  rioters,  insurgents,  or  rebels." — Parsons  on  Gontracts. 
"I  can  not  see  better  than  another,  nor  walk  so  well." — Garrick.  "  I  can  not 
tell  which  way  his  Majesty  went,  nor  whether  there  is  any  one  with  him."— 
Fielding. 

But  or  may  be  preferable  to  nor,  when  the  parts  are  short  and  closely  con- 
nected, or  when  the  preceding  negative  plainly  affects  all  the  parts,  or  when  the 
parts  are  not  emphatically  distinguished,  or  when  the  latter  part  is  merely  ex- 
planatory or  alternative.  "No  senator  or  representative  shall  be  appointed  to," 
&G.  "  This  was  not  to  be  ascribed  chiefly  or  solely  to  political  animosity." — 
Macaulay.  "JVb  tie  of  gratitude  or  of  honor  could  bind  lum." — Id.  "So  long 
as  they  did  not  meddle  with  polities  or  religiou." — Prescott.  -'No  special  words, 
or  form,  are  necessary  to  make  the  contract  binding." — Parsons.  Nor  sometimes 
cuts  off  preceding,  modifying,  or  other  words,  and  then  or  must  be  used ;  as, 
"  You  can  not  be  too  exact  or  honest  in  your  business,"  i  e.,  nor  too  lionest. 
"You  can  not  be  too  exact  nor  honest  in  your  business,"  implies  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  be  honest.  "  These  syllables  are  nxit  always  sounded  or  accented  in 
the  same  way."  "  There  was  wo  excess  of  fraud  or  cruelty,  of  which  he  was  not 
capable." — Macaulay.  Here  nor  would  suggest  "no  cruelty,"  and  not,  "  no  ex- 
cess of  cruelty."  Nor  soraethnes  allows  the  word  after  it  to  have  the  widest 
application  ;  as,  "There  is  tm  person  nor  law  to  prevent  him,"  i.  e.,  nor  law  in 
general.  Better:  "  There  is  no  person,  no  law,"  etc.,  or,  "  There  is  no  person  or 
law,"  etc.,  or,  "  There  is  no  person  nor  any  law,"  etc.  When  or  would  suggest 
that  the  latter  part  is  merely  alternative  when  it  really  is  not  so,  nor  must  be 
used,  or  else  som.e  other  mode  of  expression ;  as,  "  No  dependent  proposition, 
nor  clause,"  &c.,  or,  "iVb  dependent  proposition,  or  other  clause,"  &c. 
"Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns  Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 

Day,  or  the  sw€«jt  approach  of  even  or  morn,  Day,  nor  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn. 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose,  Jfor  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose, 
Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine."     Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine. 

Milton.  OoolcL  BrowiVs  E)n&ndution. 

Or  and  nor  are  sometimes  used  by  poets  in  stead  of  either  and  neither.  "-Or 
floating  loose,  or  stiff  with  mazy  gold." — Milton.  "Nor  in  sheet  nor  in  shroud 
we  wound  him." —  Wolfe. 

Provided.  "At  the  father's  death  the  property  is  divided  equally,  provided 
there  is  no  will  to  the  contrary." 

Since.  The  cause  or  motive  always  precedes  in  time ;  hence  since  may  be 
used  as  a  conjunction.  "  Since  you  have  brought  your  hounds,  wo  will  take 
a  hunt." 

Still.  "Though  theu-  homes  were  laid  waste,  still  the  spirit  of  the  people 
was  invh.cible"=— j/e<  even  then. 

Than  sliould  be  used  after  comparatives,  and  after  other,  else,  otherwise^ 
rathir.  and  words  of  similar  meaning.  Besides  may  also  be  used  after  else  or 
other,  when  the  sense  requires  it.  It  joins  on  something  as  additional,  or  to  be 
included  with  what  has  been  previously  mentioned.  "He  will  hold  the  land 
against  all  others  ^/ian  the  king;"  i.e.,  but  not  against  him.  "He  will  hold 
the  land  against  all  others  besides  the  king;"  i.  e.,  not  merely  against  him,  but 
against  all  othei-s  too. 

That  properly  introduces  a  consequence  or  purpose;  sometimes  it  heads  a 
group  of  words  that  form  an  expanded  explanation  in  reference  to  some  other 
word.  "  There  was  such  a  noise  that  we  could  not  study."  "  I  came  that  I 
might  assist  you."  "  The  Bible  is  such  that  a  child  can  understand  it,  and  yet 
a  philosopher  may  study  it  all  his  life."  After  words  of  fearing,  doubting,  deny- 
ing, and  some  others,  hu*,  but  wJi/ii,  but  that,  lest,  or  lest  that,  should  not  be  used 


CONJUNCTIONS.  235 

for  that     **  I  do  not  doubt  hut  that  you  will  succeed,"  seems  to  except  the  very 
thing  not  excepted:  say,   "I  do  not  doubt  that  you  will  succeed." 

Therefore.  "  It  has  rained,  therefore  the  grass  will  gro\v'^=mnatural  conse- 
qmncfl.    "  The  dust  is  laid,  therefore  it  has  raiued" — logical  consequence,  conclusion. 

Then  is  less  formal  than  therefare,  and  so  is  still  less  formal ;  hence  refers  to 
a  cause  near  at  hand  ;  thence  to  a  remoter  one ;  wherefore  to  something  imme- 
diately preceding ;  therefore  deduces  an  important  conclusion,  and  often  refers  to 
a  series  of  causes  or  reasons ;  accordingly  introduces  what  ciiimes  in  with  nature 
and  reason  or  some  admitted  statement ;  and  consequently  sums  up  matters  in  the 
most  formi^i  style. 

Though,  although,  imply  admission  or  opposition.  (See  the  preceding 
paragraph.)  "  The  Spaniards  pushed  on,  although  the  barbarians  clambered  up, 
and  broke  in  upon  their  ranks"  notwithstanding.  — "  though  the  barbarians" 
=the  barbarians,  however —     As  though  is  often  improperly  used  for  as  if. 

Unless  attaches  to  a  clause  the  exception  which  would  establish  the  oppo- 
site clause.  "A  man  can  not  be  convicted,  unless  he  is  guilty"  ==if  not.  "The 
accused  is  set  at  liberty,  unless  he  has  been  convicted'"==6wi  not. . .  .if. 

Whereas.  ^^WTiereas  it  doth  appear  that  one  Isaac  Bertram,  alias  "William 
Burton,"  &.c.=since,  or,  inasmuch  as.  "  His  good  deeds  are  never  thought  of, 
whereas  his  evil  ones  are  everywhere  told  and  exaggeva,ted!^=while,  on  the 
contrary. 

Whether,     ^qq  If  oxid  Either. 

Yet.  "  Though  resistance  to  the  tyrant  spread  desolation  over  our  lands, 
yet  future  industry  may  repair  them"-=future  industry,  however,  may,  &c. 

Again,  also,  however,  now,  nay,  even,  farther,  furthermore,  namely,  therefore, 
wherefore,  otherwise,  likewise,  so,  still,  thtbs,  else,  accordingly,  consequently,  and  a 
few  other  such  words,  though  originally  adverbs,  are  considered  by  many  gram- 
marians conjunctions  when  they  stand  near  the  beginning  of  a  clause  or  sen- 
tence, or  when  they  introduce  something.  Most  of  them  have  acquired  their 
conjunctive  sense  by  ellipsis.  The  pupil  should  consider  whether  they  modify 
according  to  their  usual  meaning,  or  connect  like  conjunctions,  and  then  parse 
them  accordingly.  It  may  sometimes  be  a  matter  of  httle  consequence  to  which 
class  they  are  referred,  provided  their  meaning,  or  force  in  the  sentence,  is  fully 
,  understood. 

Some  of  these  words  are  occasionally  used  to  avoid  a  too  frequent  repetition 
of  some  very  common  conjunctions;  such  as  and,  or,  but.  Sometimes  they 
merely  assist  or  strengthen  the  conjunction.  "  He  has  a  laborious  profession  ; 
but  it  is  very  lucrative."  "  He  has  a  laborious  profession ;  however,  it  is  very 
lucrative."  "The  corn  was  sold,  and  also  dehvered,  before  we  saw  it,  or  even 
heard  of  it." 

Conjunctive  adverbs  have  already  been  considered.     See  p.  209. 

Conjunctive  phrases  are  such  as,  on  the  contrary,  on  the  other  hand,  the  moment 
that,  as  well  as.  Most  of  them  are  often  used  to  relieve  or  strengthen  the  ordi- 
nary connectives.  Some  clauses  are  connected  simply  by  having  a  correlative 
sense ;  and  the  phrases  which  give  them  this  sense,  may  also  be  termed  conjunc- 
tive phrases.     ^^The  more  we  have,  the  more  we  want." 

The  longer  conjunctions  or  expressions  are  sometimes  merely  a  little  more 
emphatic  or  forcible. 

All  the  relative  pronouns  attach  clauses  in  the  sense  of  adjectives  or  nouns. 
(See  pp.  95-98.)  Hence  and  is  often  improperly  used  before  relative  clauses. 
"  The  windmill  on  the  hill,  and  which  was  built  last  year,  has  been  blown 
down."  Omit  and.  "Here  lies  buried  Thomas  Brown,  who  founded  this  city, 
and  who  died  in  1797."  Here  and  is  proper,  for  it  joins  the  relative  clause  to 
tlie  one  preceding  it,  while  who  joins  it  to  the  dutecedent 


£36  CONJUNCTIONS. EXERCISES. 

EXERCISES. 
Examples  to  be  Analyzed  and  Parsed. 

Po/rse  the  conjunctions,  prepositions,  and  adverbs  : — 

1. 

Her  eyes  are  bright  and*  blue.  The  ship  carried  off  a  load  of  ice,  and^ 
brought  back  sugar,  coffee,  and  spices.  Never  show  your  teeth,  unless 
you  can  bite.  Talk  not  too  much,  nor  of  thyself.  Fear  G-od,  and  keep 
his  commandments ;  for  this  comprehends  the  whole  duty  of  man.  To 
learn  in  youth,  is  less  painful  tiian  to  be  ignorant  in  old  age.  No  other 
persons  are  so'^  blind  as^"*  those'"  who  will  not  see. 

2. 

He  supposed  that  his  defeat  gave  us  hope  that  he  would  yield  to  our 
forces,  inasmuch"  as  he  beUeved  we  were  sure  that  he  could  now  receive 
no  reenforcements. —  Washington. 

However,  since  the  best  of  us  have  too  many  infirmities  to  answer  for, 
we  ought  not  to  be  too  severe  upon  those  of  others ;  and  therefore,  if  our 
brother  is  in  trouble,  we  ought  to  help  him,  without  inquiring  over  seriously 
what  produced  it. — Swift. 

We  are  annoyed  either^  by  our  own  foHies,  vices,  and  misfortunes,  or 
by  those  of  others ;  so  that  the  greater  part  of  life,  with  the  many,  con- 
sists of  suffering  and  sorrow. — Johnson. 

(a.) is  a  conjunction  (def.) ;  coordinate,  it  connects  parts  of  -whicli  one  does  not  mod- 
ify the  other;  co^jJiJatiwe,  it  implies  addition ;  and  here  connects  "6n(/Wand  "  6Zwe,"  ac- 
cording to  Kule  XV.    (6.) is  a  conjunction,  etc.  ;  it  implies  addition;  and  here  connects 

two  phrases,  according  to  Rule  XV.  (c.)  '■'Inasmuch  as"  is  a  conjunctive  phrase,  or  simply  a 
conjunction,  etc. ;  it  implies  cause  or  reason  ;  and  here  connects  clauses  or  sentences,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  XV.    id.) is  a  corresponding  conjunction,  it  assists  another  coryunction,  etc 

Examples  to  be  Corrected. 

All  the  liabilities  to  error  in  regard  to  conjunctions  or  connectives,  may  be.^, 
reduced  to  the  folk) wing  heads : — 

1.  Choice.      2.  Position,      3.  Insertion  or  omission.      4.   The 
parts  connected. 

1.  Choice, 

1.  The  amplest  and  miost  appropriate  connective  should  always  be 
selected, 

2.  Two  or  more  connectives  occupying  different  places  in  the  sentence, 
and  serving  to  unite  the  same  parts,  should  exactly  correspond. 

Your  notions  are  too  refined,  so  as  we  are  not  likely  to  agree,  —so  that— 
He  was  dismissed,  not  so  much  because  he  was  too  young,  but  because  he  was 
too  unskiUfuL  —as  because-  A  conjunction  connects  words,  plirases,  and 
clauses.  I  he  land  la  equally  adapted  to  farming  or  to  pasturage.  To  borrow 
or  to  lend  may  be  equally  imprudent.  Proportion  is  simple  and  compound. 
—either. .  •  -or—  1  can  not  conceive  how  my  horse  got  away,  without  some- 
body untied  hira.  —unless—  I  do  not  know  why  he  should  have  bought  the 
lot,  without  he  bought  it  for  speculation.       The  report  is  the  sam  ■   with  that 


CONJUNCTIONS. EXERCISES.  237 

which  I  heard.  — the  same  as  that —  I  Imve  the  same  opinion  of  the  matter 
with  my  friend.  A  man  of  great  ability,  but  for  all  that  he  is  not  successful. 
— and  yet —  They  told  us  how  that  it  happened.  — how  it —  He  is  too  reck- 
less and  indolent  that  we  should  put  confidence  in  him.  —for  us  to  put —  The 
multitude  rebuked  them,  because  they  should  hold  their  peace.  The  donation 
was  the  more  acceptable,  that  it  was  given  without  solicitation.  I  will  see  if 
it  snows  or  not.  — whether —  Do  you  know  if  the  mail  has  arrived  ?  If  a 
body  moves  in  a  curve,  the  curve  is  in  one  plane.  When,  &c.  The  last  of 
the  horses  had  scarcely  crossed  the  bridge,  tlian  the  head  of  the  third  battalion 
appeared  on  the  other  side  — Harper's  Magazine.  I  will  go  except  I  should  be 
ill.  I  saw  them  all  unless  two  or  three.  So  as  that  his  doctrines  were  em- 
braced by  great  numbers.  To  go  by  water  will  be  equally  as  expensive  as  to 
go  by  land. 

He  looked  as  though  he  could  eat  up  an  ox,  and  pick  his  teeth  with  the  horns. 
— Irving.  — as  if —  I  wUl  assist  you,  if  that  you  can  not  do  the  work  your- 
self. Some  useful  maxims,  and  which  I  shall  never  forget,  I  learned  from  him. 
— maxions,  which —  Some  of  the  land,  and  for  which  he  paid  the  highest  price, 
was  subject  to  overflow.  He  soon  discovered  some  qualities  in  her,  of  a  dis- 
agreeable nature,  and  which  gradually  implanted  aversion.  The  money  was 
stolen  at  the  time  that  the  boat  was  landing.  At  the  time  that  I  saw  her,  she 
was  young  and  beautiful.  ('ajsar  wrote  in  the  same  manner  that  he  fought. 
This  is  one  reason  that  he  will  not  comply.  — lohy —  A  wise  man  will  be 
contented  that  his  glory  shall  be  deferred  till  such  a  time  as  he  shall  be  truly 
glorified.  — till  the  time  at  which —  He  holds  no  opinion  but  what  is  supported 
by  authority  and  reason. — Kent.  This  passion  arises  from  much  the  same  cause 
zs  sympathy. — Burke.  Bruce  spoke  of  himself  and  his  compeers  as  being 
neither  Scottish  or  English,  but  Norman,  barons. — Scott.  I  could  not  buy  it 
nor  borrow  it.  — neither ...  .nor —  His  life  is  neither  tossed  in  boisterous 
soas  or  the  vexatious  world,  or  lost  in  slothful  ease.  He  has  no  love  nor  vene- 
ration for  his  superiors.  Neither  flatter  or  contemn  the  rich  or  the  great. 
There  was  no  place  so  hidden  nor  remote  as  the  plague  did  not  find  it.  We 
need  not,  nor  do  not,  confine  the  purposes  of  Grod.  — and —  I  will  defraud 
nobody,  nor  nobody  shall  defraud  me.  No  problem  is  so  difficult  which  he  can 
not  solve.  — that  he  can  not  solve  it.  No  occupation  is  so  easy  and  simple,  but 
it  requires  some  care  and  cultivation. 

He  could  not  deny  but  what  he  borrowed  the  money.  — deny  thai —  There 
is  no  question  but  the  universe  has  certain  bounds  to  it. — Addison.  I  have  no 
doubt  but  that  the  pistol  is  a  relic  of  the  buccaneers. — Irving.  A  corrupt  gov- 
ernor is  nothing  else  but  a  reigning  sin.  — than  a —  She  thinks  of  little  else 
but  dressing  and  visiting.  He  is  fond  of  nothing  else  but  play  and  mischief. 
This  is  none  other  but  tne  gate  of  Paradise.  0  fairest  flower,  no  sooner  blown 
but  blasted  I — -Milton.  Unaccommodated  man  is  no  more  but  such  a  poor,  bare, 
forked  animal  as  thou  art. — Shak.  I  can  not  otherwise  reduce  these  fractions 
but  by  multiplying  by  the  denominators.  There  is  no  other  umbrella  here  but 
mine.  The  book  is  not  as  accurate  as  I  wished  it  to  be.  — so  accurate —  He 
is,  as  far  as  I  can  judge,  well  qualified.  So  still  he  sat  as  those  who  wait  till 
judgment  speak  the  doom  of  fate.  His  weakness  is  such  as  that  he  can  not 
sit  up.  Do  your  work  so  as  that  you  will  not  be  obliged  to  do  it  again.  There 
is  no  disposition  naturally  so  good  as  that  it  does  not  require  cultivation.  I  will 
not  go  away  till  your  brother  returns.  (Perhaps  allowable;  though  fee/ore  seems 
preferable  to  till.)  The  loafer  seems  to  be  created  for  no  other  purpose  but  to 
keep  up  the  ancient  and  honorable  order  of  idlenviss. — Irving.  — other. . . ,  tlian — 
or,  no  purpose except —  Such  writers  have  no  other  standard  but  what  ap- 
pears to  be  fashionable  and  popular. — Blair's  Rhetoric 


238  CONJUNCTIONS. EXERCISES. 

2.  Position. 

(See  page  213.) 

He  is  unqualified  for  either  teaching  mathematics  or  languages.  I  shall 
neither  depend  on  you  nor  on  him.  — neither  on  you  nor  on  Mm.  The  farm 
will  then  either  be  rented  or  sold.  Some  nouns  are  either  used  in  the  singular 
or  in  the  plural  number.  Some  nouns  are  used  either  in  the  singialar  or  the 
plural  number.  Mules  are  both  imported  from  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  Mules 
are  imported  both  from  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  Mules  are  imported  from 
both  Kentucky  and  from  Missouri 

3.  Insertion  or   Omission. 

1.  Connectives  should  not  be  used  so  frequently  as  to  encumber  the 
sentence. 

2.  Connectives  should  not  be  used  so  seldom  that  the  discourse  is  ren- 
dered too  fragmentary,  or  the  connection  between  the  parts  obscure. 

John,  and  Mary,  and  William,  and  Susan,  went  to  visit  their  uncle.  He  is 
a  man  of  visionary  notions,  unacquainted  with  the  world,  unfit  to  live  in  it. 
The  important  relations  of  masters  and  servants,  and  husbands  and  wives,  and 
brothers  and  sisters,  and  friends  and  citizens.  While  the  earth  remaineth,  seed- 
time and  harvest,  cold,  heat,  summer,  winter,  day  and  night,  shall  not  cease. 
It  happened  one  day  he  went  out  of  curiosity  to  see  the  great  Duke's  lions. — 
Addison.  Surely  no  man  is  so  infatuated  to  wish  for  a  government  diftereut 
from  that  which  we  have. 


4.  The  Parts   Connected. 

1.  To  vary  connected  or  related  parts  needlessly,  in  kind  or  form,  w 
generally  inelegant. 

2.  When  a  part  has  a  common  dependence  on  two  connected  parts 
before  it  or  after  it,  it  should  be  proper  when  construed  with  each. 

He  managed  the  affair  wisely  and  with  caution.  — wisely  and  cautiously — or, 
with  wisdom  and  caution.  In  the  morning  of  life  we  set  out  with  joy  and  hope- 
fully, but  we  soon  pursue  our  journey  sorrowfully  and  with  despondence.  En- 
joying health,  and  to  live  in  peace,  are  great  blessings.  You  may  take  some 
or  all  the  apples  in  the  basket.  (Hardly  allowable  ;  say  rather,  "  You  may  take 
some  of  Vie  apples  in  the  basket,  or  all  of  themy)  He  either  could  not,  nor  wished, 
to  refute  the  argument.  It  is  grammatically  independent,  but  referring  logic- 
ally to  some  indefinite  person.  To  borrow  is  easier  than  paying.  — than  to 
pay.  She  was  a  young  lady  of  great  beauty,  and  possessing  an  ample  fortune. 
— and  an  ample  fortune.  The  author  is  more  remarkable  for  strength  of  senti- 
ment than  harmonious  language.  — than  for  harmony  of  language.  He  did 
not  meutioa  Leonora,  nor  that  her  father  was  dead.  — nor  her  father's  death. 
He  can  bribe,  but  he  is  not  able  to  seduce ;  he  can  buy,  but  he  has  not  the  power 
of  gaining;  he  can  Ho,  but  no  one  is  deceived  by  him.  — hut  he  can  not —  He 
embraced  the  cause  of  liberty  faintly,  and  pursued  it  without  resolution ;  he  grew 
tired  of  it  when  he  had  much  to  hope,  and  gave  it  up  when  there  was  no 
ground  of  apprehension. 

He  ought  and  will  go  this  evening.  — ought  to  go  and  will  go —  He  can 
and  ought  to  give  more  attention  to  his  business.  Cedar  is  not  so  hard  but 
more  durable  than  oak.  so  hard  as  oak,  but  more  durable.  She  is  fairer, 
but  not  80  amiable,  as  her  sister.  It  is  different  but  better  than  the  old.  The 
court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  breaks  tho  teeth  of  the  common  law. 


CONJUNCTIONS. OBSERVATIONS.  29^ 

— Addison.  We  could  not  find  the  place  nor  the  persons  by  whom  the  goods 
nad  been  concealed.  That  lot  is  preferable  and  cheaper  than  the  other.  The 
opinions  of  the  few  must  be  overruled  and  submit  to  the  opinions  of  the  many. 
Into  this  cave  we  luckily  found  the  way,  and  a  comfortable  shelter.  — and  it 
afforded  iis  a  comfortable  shelter.  The  comparison  depends  on  the  sound  or  the 
number  of  syllables  composing  the  word.  Whatever  we  do,  shall  be  displayed 
and  heard  in  the  clearest  light. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  By  means  of  conjunctions,  the  speaker  or  writer  intimates  that  his  discourse 
is  to  be  continued,  and  generally  how  he  means  what  he  is  about  to  say  to  be  re- 
garded in  reference  to  what  he  has  already  said.  They  serve  to  unite,  or  bind 
together,  the  several  parts  of  sentences,  or  to  attach  additional  sentences  to  the  pre- 
ceding discourse.  It  has  been  said  that  tiiey  are  to  other  parts  of  discourse  what 
aails  and  mortar  are  to  other  building  materials. 

Conjunctions  depend  perhaps  more  on  the  mind  than  on  the  external  world,  or 
.'ess  on  the  outward  world  than  most  otlier  words  ;  and  hence  those  of  one  language 
can  perhaps  never  be  all  precisely  translated  by  those  of  another.  If  I  say  to  you, 
"  Our  tea  is  brouiiht  from  China,  and  our  coffee  from  the  Indies,"  I  bring  together, 
into  one  sentence,  things  not  necessarily  connected  by  nature :  if  I  suspect  that 
vou  believe  both  are  brought  from  China,  I  would  be  apt  to  say,  "  Our  tea  is 
brought  from  China,  hut  our  coffee  is  brought  from  the  Indies;"  or,  '■^Tliough  our 
tea  is  brought  from  China,  yet  our  coffee  is  brought  from  the  Indies.'"  The  speaker 
or  writer  has  always  something  in  view,  or  snpposes  a  certain  tendency  in  the 
minds  of  those  whom  he  addresses ;  and  he  selects  his  conjunctions  accordingly. 
As  the  number  of  conjunctions  is  comparatively  small  for  all  the  windings  and 
labyrinths  of  thought,  we  may  infer  that  conjunctions  are  used  with  considerable 
vagueness,  and  have  various  shades  of  meaning,  which  must  often  be  inferred 
rather  from  the  parts  connected,  tha  \  from  any  definition  that  can  be  given.  la 
reasoning,  the  effect  of  the  conjunctions,  and  the  meaning  of  the  parts  connected, 
should  always  be  very  carefully  examined. 

3.  TIcat,  if,  and  some  other  conjunctions,  are  frequently  omitted  to  avoid  heavi- 
ness or  harshness  of  expression,  or  when  the  connection  and  dependence  of  the 
parts  is  sufiiciently  obvious.  "  1  am  satisfied  that  is  the  proper  plan"=I  am  sati»- 
iied  tkat  that  is  the  proper  plan.  "  Were  it  so"=i5^"  it  were  so.  The  judicious  in- 
sertion or  omission  of  conjunctions  sometimes  contributes  much  to  the  elegance  or 
expressiveness  of  sentences.  Kepetition  implies  deliberation,  or  a  desire  to  make 
the  most  of  the  matter.  The  omission  of  the  conjunction  usually  implies  rapidity, 
haste,  or  so  deep  an  interest,  on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  in  what  is  uttered,  that  he 
can  not  pay  attention  to  connectives  or  unimportant  words.  A  series  of  terms  are 
sometimes  elegantly  connected  in  pairs  or  groups.    See  pp.  327,  3^8. 

The  following  paragraphs  exhibit,  the  one,  frugality,  the  other,  profusion,  in  the 
use  of  connectives,  carried  perhaps  to  the  farthest  point  of  endurance  : — 

"  Morning  came :  we  rushed  to  the  fight ;  from  wing  to  wing  is  the  rolling 
strife.  They  fell  like  the  thistle's  head  beneath  the  autumnal  wmds.  In  armor 
came  a  stately  form :  I  mixed  my  strokes  with  the  chief.  By  turns  our  shields 
are  pierced:'  loud  rung  our  steely  mails.  His  helmet  fell  to  the  ground.  In 
brightness  siione  the  foe.  His  eyes,  two  pleasant  flames,  rolled  between  his  wan- 
dering locks.  I  knew  Cathmor  of  Atha  ;  I  threw  my  sbear  on  the  earth.  Bark 
we  turned,  and  silent  passed  to  mix  with  other  foes." — Ossian. 

"  And  then  the  three  companies  blew  the  trumpets,  and  brake  the  pitchers, 
and  held  the  lamps  in  their  hands,  and  the  trumpets  in  their  right  hands  to  blow 
withal.  And  they  cried.  The  sword  of  the  Lord,  and  of  Gideon.  And  they  stood 
every  man  in  his  place  round  about  tlie  camp :  and  all  the  host  ran,  and  cried,  and 
tQ\V'— Bible. 

4.  When  the  mind  naturally  ezpects  uniformity  of  structure,  a  deviation  is 
generally  harsh,  and  should  be  avoided.  Hence,  for  instance,  "He  went  to  plun^ 
der,  instead  of  governing,  the  colony,"  though  a  mode  of  expression  used  by  good 
writers,  would  probably  be  better  expressed  bv  saying,  "  to  plunder,  aud  not  to 
gooern,^'  or,  "  ratlier  to  plunder  than  to  govern.''^    But  when  the  sense  or  even  the 


240  INTKRJECTIONS. 

melody  of  the  sentence  requires  a  difference  of  structure,  a  deviation  is  allowable  : 
as,  "  He  has  merely  strung  together  words  graminuticuUy,  and  without  absurdity.'' 
To  say,  '*  He  has  merely  strung  together  words  grammatically,  and  not  absurdly," 
might  convey  a  different  meaning. 

Apart  relating  to  two  or  more  connected  parts,  is  usually  construed  in  tho 
mind  with  each,  and  hence  it  should  make  sense  with  each,  "  He  can  and  ougM 
to  go  this  evening"=He  can  to  and  oagJit  to  go  this  evening.  "  It  is  different  and 
inferior  to  the  second"=It  is  different  to  and  in  ferior  to  the  second.  Therefore 
say,  *'  He  can  go  and  oaght  to  go  this  evening ;"  '  It  is  dlferent  from  the  second, 
and  inferior  to  it."  ''He  was  as  much  bele  'ed,  but 'less  admired,  than  his 
brother"=He  was  as  much  beloved  than  his  biother,  but  less  admired  than  his 
brother  :  say,  "  He  was  as  much  beloved  as  his  brother,  but  less  admired."  In 
such  sentences,  it  is  customary  to  make  the  third  part  relate  to  only  one  of  the 
connected  parts,  by  completing  the  construction  with  the  first  connected  part,  and 
requiring  the  reader  to  supply  tlie  third  part,  in  a  suitable  form,  after  the  second 
connected  part.  When  the  two  connected  parts  are  very  short,  and  the  other  part 
is  very  long,  I  question  the  impropriety  of  placing  the  latter  after  the  other  two, 
and  requiring  the  reader  to  supply  it  in  its  proper  form  after  the  first  of  the  con- 
nected parts.  Why  not  supply  a  proper  expression  after  the  first,  as  well  as  after 
the  second,  of  the  connected  parts?  "An  improper  fraction  is  equal  to,  or  greater 
than,  1,  because  it  expresses  as  many  or  more  parts  than  it  takes  to  equal  a  unity — 
D.  P.  Colhurn.  To  put  the  latter  part  of  this  sentence  in  a  different  form,  would 
make  the  sentence  rather  stiff,  affected,  and  pedantic.  Besides,  the  construction 
seems  to  be  no  worse  than  that  of  such  well-established  expressions  as,  "  Preceded 
by  one  or  more  consonants^ 

12.  INTERJECTIONS. 

?  394.  An  interjection  is  a  word  that  expresses  an  emotion 
only,  and  is  not  connected  in  construction  with  any  other  word. 

Ex.—"  '6>,  stay,'  the  maiden  said,  '  and  rest.' "  "^Ziis,  alas  !  fair  Ines."  "PoA  / 
never  trouble  thy  head  with  such  fancies." 

"  Few,  few,  shall  part  where  many  meet !  '■'■Ah  !  few  shall  part  where  many  meet  I 

The  snow  shall  be  their  winding-sheet,  The  snow  shall  be  their  winding-sheet, 

And  every  clod  beneath  their  feet  And  every  clod  beneath  their  feet 

Shall  be  a  soldier's  sepulchre  !"  Shall  be  a  soldier's  sepulchre  !" 

The  latter  stanza  is  the  first  as  it  was  afterwards  improved.  Ah  indicates  much 
better  tlie  transition  from  the  storm  of  battle  to  the  wail  of  woe.  See  also  p.  56. 

?  395.  Words  from  ahnost  every  other  part  of  speech,  and  some- 
times entire  phrases,  when  abruptly  uttered  to  express  emotion,  may 
become  interjections. 

Ex. — Strange!  behold!  what  I  why!  indeed!  mercy!  away!  "Why,  there^ 
ihere^  there  /"     ^'■Flre  and  brimstone  I  what  have  you  been  doing  ?" 

?  396.  But  when  it  is  not  the  chief  purpose  of  the  word  to  ex- 
press emotion,  and  when  the  omitted  words  are  obvious,  it  may  be 
better  to  parse  the  word  as  usual. 

Ex.— ^^ Patience,  good  lady!  comfort,  gentle  Constance V^—ShaJsespeare. 

Have  patience,  good  lady  1  receive  comfort,  [=be  consoled,]  gentle  Constance. 

?  397.  Words  used  in  speaking  to  the  inferior  animals,  and  imi- 
tative words  that  are  uttered  with  emotion,  are  generally  inter- 
'ections. 

Ex.— Ilnw  I  gee  1  whoh !  sca*,  !  whist !  'st,  'st !  "  The  words  are  fine,  but  as  to 
the  seaso— i-a-A  P'— Newspaper.    "  Up  comes  a  man  on  a  sudden,  slap  .'  dash  / 


INTERJECTIONS. EXERCISES. OBSERVATIONS.  241 

Buuffd  out  the  candle,  and  carries  away  all  the  cash."  Interjections.  "  When, 
click  !  the  string  the  latch  did  draw,  and,  jee  !  the  door  went  to  the  wa'." — Bums, 
Interjections  rather  than  adverbs.  "  The  lark  that  tirra-lirra  chants." — Shak.  Ad- 
verb, shovvinff  how.  "  With  a  lengthened,  loud  halloo,  tu-who,  tu-whit,  tu- 
whoo-o-o^ — Tennyson.    A  noun,  descriptive  of  halloo. 

"  Go,  get  you  to  bed  and  repose — 
To  sit  up  as  late  is  a  scandal ; 
But,  ere  you  have  ta'en  off  your  clothes, 
Be  sure  that  you  blow  out  the  candle. 
Bi  fol  de  rol  tol  de  rot  loV — Horace  Smith. 

If  such  an  expression  can  be  parsed  at  all,  it  must  be  parsed  as  an  interjection : 
it  may  be  said  to  indicate  pleasurable  emotions. 

?  398.  The  case  of  a  substantive  after  an  interjection,  often  de- 
pends on  some  word  understood. 

Ex. — "  Ah  ?w6/"==Ah  !  fity  me;  or,  Ah  !  what  has  happened  to  me  !  or,  Ah  ! 
wo  is  to  me  !  or,  Ah!  it  grieves  ms.  "Ah  !  luckless  /"=Ah !  luckless  am  I!  "  0, 
happy  we  .■'"=0,  happy  are  we  !     See  also  p.  112. 

?  399.  When  an  interjection  is  used,  it  is  generally  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence ;  but  sometimes  within  the  sentence,  or 
even  at  the  end ;  and  sometimes  it  stands  alone.  In  its  syntax,  it  is 
always  independent  of  other  words. 


EXERCISES 


Examples  to  be  Analyzed  and  Parsed. 

Furse  all  the  words: — 

Alas !  the  way  is  wearisome  and  long.  Adieu,  and  let  me  hear  from  you 
soon  again.  Grods"!  if  I  could  but  paint  a  dying  groan.  Ah  me !  Hist  I 
hush  I  within  the  gloom  of  yonder  trees,  methonght  a  figure  passed. 
Ha,  ha,  ha'' 1  well°  said.  Welcome,  ^Velcome,  Lafayette!  Out  upon 
hei^  I  thou  torturest  me,  Tubal. 

The  Armory. — Ah !  what  a  sound  will  rise,  how  wild  and  dreary, 

When  the  Death  Angel  touches  those  swift  keys  ! 

(a.)  "Gods"  is  here  used  as  an  interjection,  it  is  abruptly  uttered  to  express  an  emotion, 
etc.  (b.)  ''Ha,  ha,  ha  /"  is  an  interjection,  etc.  (c.)  That  thing  was  "  well  said."  {d.)  ''Out 
ttpon  herT  is  an  inter jectional  x>hrase,  it  is  abruptly  uttered  to  express  an  emotion  ;  it  de- 
notes anger,  etc. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Some  interjections  may  be  uttered  by  the  speaker  when  alone,  as  alas ;  others 
always  have  reference  to  another  being,  as  farewell.  Some  denote  painful  emo- 
tions, as  p'^h ;  others  pleasurable  emotions,  as  hurrah.  Some  indicate  intense 
feeling,  as  oh ;  others,  slight  emotion,  as  eh.  Some,  depressed  feelings,  as  alas  ; 
others,  buoyant  emotions,  as  helgho.  Some  of  tliem.  as  0,  ah,  are,  like  laughter 
and  weeping,  universal  expressions  for  certain  feelings:  they  are  found  in  all 
languages. 

Interjections  are  most  apt  to  occur  when  the  mind  is  agitated  or  suddenly  ex- 
cited ;  and  hence  we  meet  with  them  most  frequently  in  poems,  orations,  novels, 
and  dramatic  writings.  They  do  not  imply  thought  or  reflection,  like  other  words ; 
but  spring  instantaneously  from  the  sensibihties  or  the  will,  with  but  little  refer- 
ence, if  any,  to  the  intellect ;  and  hence  they  are  more  capricious  or  less  logical 


242  WORDS    BELONGING    TO    TWO 

than  other  words,  and  not  so  fixed  in  form  and  signification.  Thua,  0  and  oh  de- 
note a  variety  of  emotions,  and  are  used  by  some  writers  indifferently,  one  for  the 
other.  Perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  make  0  denote  only  such  emotions  as  are 
lively  and  joytul ;  and  o\  such  as  are  violent  and  sorrowful.  "  Peace  be  with  thee, 
0  our  brother." —  Whittier.  "  Oh  my  heart's  love  !  oh  my  dear  one  !  .  .  .  .  mercy  ! 
mercy  I  all  is  o'er  !" — Id.  Some  writers  recommend  that  0  should  always  be  pre- 
ferred when  an  address  is  made.  This  is  a  plain  and  convenient  distinction,  but 
it  is  not  always  observed.  Some  of  the  very  common  emotions,  as  wonder,  auger, 
or  joy,  we  find  expressed  iuterjectionally  by  everso  many  diflFerent  words,  lu 
fact,  interjections  being  to  some  extent  instinctive  sounds,  their  propriety  does  not 
always  depend  on  conventional  usage,  but  often  somewhat  on  the  peculiar  charac- 
ter and  condition  of  the  person  using  them.  Frequently,  a  speaker  takes  merely 
some  word  or  words  of  tlie  previous  speaker, — those  which  chiefly  excited  the  sur- 
prise, approbation,  or  indignation, — and  uses  them  iuterjectionally.  "  Consider, 
bir  Charles  is  upon  a  visit  to  his  bride. — Bride  !  he  is  titter  for  the  gallows." — 
jBntish  Lrania.  As  a  general  thing,  however,  interjections  should  be  selected  with 
great  care,  and  not  used  too  frequently  nor  too  seldom.  When  properly  used, 
tliey  have  sometimes  a  fine  effect ;  but  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  they  alone  can 
make  discourae  sprightly  or  pathetic.  They  must  grow  naturally  out  of  the  sub- 
ject or  the  sentiment.  They  may,  like  the  overspreading  vine,  deepen  the  shade 
of  feeling,  but  they  can  not  supply  the  jjlace  of  the  tree.  When  I  see  them 
standing  thick  on  a  page,  I  am  generally  reminded  of  the  well-known  line  of 
Dry  den : — 

"  He  whistled,  as  he  went,  for  want  of  thought." 

It  is  perhaps  needless  to  add  tliat  the  words  of  swearing  or  cursing,  which 
rowdies  use  for  grace  and  emphasis,  are  interjections  as  superfliuous  as  ungentle- 
manly. 


WORDS  BELONaiNG  TO  TWO  OR  MORE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

400.  The  part  of  speech  to  which  a  given  word  belongs,  should  al- 
ways be  determined  by  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  used.  When  I 
say,  "  Our  well  is  deep,"  well  is  a  noun ;  "  The  man  is  well^'  well  is  an 
adjective;  "John  writes  well^'  well  is  an  adverb:  "The  waters  well  firom 
the  ground,"  well  is  a  verb. 

All  is  used — 

As  an  adjective.     '■'■All  flowers  must  fade." 

As  a  noun.     "Not  all  that  glistens,  is  gold." 

As  an  adverb.     ''All  [altogether]  listless  roamed  a  shepherd  swain." 
As  is  used—  ["^5  cold  as  \gq''— degree. 

As  an  adverb.     "  Skato  as  I  skate" — manner.    "  It  fell  as  I  entered" — time. 

As  a  conjunction.     ''As  [since]  wo  all  must  die,  why  not  be  charitable  ?" 

As  a  pronoun.     "  Let  such  as  hear,  take  heed." 
Before  is  used — 

As  an  adverb.     '*  I  came  before  it  rained." 

As  a  preposition.     •'  He  stood  before  me." 
So  arc  also  used  above,  after,  below,  ere,  etc. 
Both  is  used — 

As  an  adjective.     "  Both  trees  are  in  blossom." 

As  a  conjunction.     "  She  is  both  handsome  and  intelligent." 
So  are  also  used  either,  neither,  etc. 


OR  MORE  PARTS  OP  SPEECH.  248 

But  is  used — 

As  a  conjunction.     "  Sin  may  gratify,  hut  repentance  stings." 
As  a  proposition.     "  Whence  all  hat  [except]  iiim  had  fled." 
As  an  adverb.     "  Words  are  but  [pnlyl  leaves." 

For  is  used — 

As  a  preposition.     "  He  works  for  me." 
As  a  conjunction.     "  Improve  each  day,  for  life  is  short" 
So  is  also  used  notwitlistanding. 

Much  is  used — 

As  an  adjective.     ^^  Much  money  is  often  an  evil." 
As  an  adverb.     "  He  is  inuch  better  than  he  was." 
As  a  noun.     "  Where  7nuch  is  given,  7nuch  is  required." 
So  are  also  used  more,  little,  less,  etc. 

Since  is  used — 

As  a  preposition.     '^ Since  last  year." 

As  an  adverb.     "  It  happened  long  since." 

As  a  conjunction.     ^^ Since  no  one  claims  it,  I  will  keep  it." 

That  is  used —  * 

As  an  adjective.     ^^That  book  belongs  to  me."  [years." 

As  a  conjunction.     "  Few  people  know  that  some  crows  live  a  hundred 
As  a  relative  pronoun.     "  The  same  flag  that  \whicK\  we  saw  before." 
As  a  demonstrative  pronoun.     "  The  court  of  England  or  that  [the  court']  ot 

What  is  used —  [France." 

As  an  interrogative  pronoun.     "  Wiat  ails  you  ?" 
As  a  relative  pronoun  with  one  case.     "  I  know  what  ails  you." 
As  a  relative  pronoun  with  two  cases.     "  Take  what  I  offer." 
As  an  adjective.     "  What  news  from  Genoa  ?" 

A.'a  a^n  adverb.     ^^What  [partly]  by  entreaty,  and  zf/ia^  by  threatening,   I 
succeeded."     What,  I  think,  for  somewhat ;  an  unusual  and  inelegant 
expression. 
As  an  interjection.     '^What !  take  my  money,  and  my  life  too  ?" 

When  doubtful  cases  occur,  a  large  dictionary  may  be  consulted  ;  and  the  teacher  may 
Bometiraes  translate  the  expression  literally  into  some  foreign  language,  and  decide  ac- 
cordingly. 


GENERAL     EXERCISES. 

All  the  remaining  errors  in  regard  to  grammar,  may  be  summed  up  under  the 
three  following  heads : — 

1.   Sentences  having  too  many  wordfi.     2.  Sentences  wanting  words, 
3.  Sentences  in   any  other  respect  faulty, 

1.   Sentences  having  too  many  Words. 

No  word  should  be  used  that  is  not  needed  to  express  the  meaningf 
correctly,  clearly,  and  forcibly. 

The  first  quahfication  required,  is  a  genms. — Pope.      Old  age  wiU  proyp 
a   joyless  and   a   dreary  season,   if  we  arrive  at   it   with   an  unimpvoY^''d   c^ 


244  UENKRAL    EXERCISES. 

with  a  corrupted  mind.  Tiiese  counsels  were  the  dictates  of  virtue,  and 
the  dictates  of  true  honor.  Avarice  and  cunning  may  gain  an  estate,  but 
avarice  and  cunning  can  not  gain  friends.  His  two  sisters  were  both  of 
them  handsome.  Thought  and  language  act  and  react  upon  each  other  mutu- 
ally. The  neck  connects  the  head  and  trunk  together.  These  savage  people 
seemed  to  have  no  other  element  but  that  of  war.  The  more  that  you  give  him, 
the  mure  will  he  want.  They  returned  back  to  the  city  from  whence  tiiey  had 
come  forth.  If  I  mistake  not,  I  think  I  have  seen  you  before.  Whenever  he 
sees  me,  he  always  inquires  concerning  my  health.  These  are  rights  that  Con- 
gress can  not  infringe  upon.  Uur  debts  and  our  sins  are  generally  greater  than 
we  think  for. — Franklin.  Their  situation  can  scarcely  be  conceived  of  at  the 
present  day.  The  continental  army  moved  down  to  Charleston  in  the  latter 
end  of  the  year. — liamsay.  These  things  had  great  and  politic  ends  in  their 
being  established.       Tiiat  there  snath  will  not  lit  this  here  scythe. 

Such  have  no  other  law  but  the  will  of  their  prince. — Kent.  How  different 
is  the  conduct  of  the  prosecutors  from  tliat  of  yours  1  The  passion  of  anger,  tho 
passion  of  envy,  and  the  passion  of  avarice.  And  he  pursued  after  the  children 
of  Israel.  Those  nice  sliades  by  which  virtues  and  vices  approach  each  one 
another. — Murray.  The  other  book  is  equally  as  good.  All  of  my  time. 
These  examples  serve  to  explain  both  the  parts  of  the  rule.  He  died  in  less 
than  two  hours'  time.  Failing  in  his  first  ettbrt,  he  again  repeated  it.  James 
is  tall,  but  Henry  is  taller  than  he.  We  sought  in  vain  to  find  the  path.  He 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  universal  love  of  all  men.  Let  us  be  ready  according 
as  opportunities  present  themselves,  to  make  a  prudent  investment  of  our  means. 
The  umbrageous  shade  of  the  woody  forest.  Ho  is  temperute,  he  is  disinterested, 
and  he  is  benevolent ;  he  is  an  ornament  to  his  family,  and  a  credit  to  his  pro- 
fession. Perseverance,  in  laudable  pursuits,  will  reward  all  our  toils,  and  will 
produce  effects  beyond  our  calculation.  The  Incas,  or  kings  of  Peru,  and  all 
those  partaking  of,  or  being  within  a  certain  degree  of  consanguinity  to  them  . . . 
were  allowed  this  privilege.  — all  tliose  within  a  certain  degree —  Being  con- 
tent with  deserving  a  trmmph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  it.  Having  been  reared 
Id  affluence,  he  could  not  endure  poverty.  (Allowable  ;  though  "  having  been" 
may  be  omitted.) 

His  happ3^,  cheerful  temper,  remote  from  discontent,  keeps  up  a  kind  of  day- 
light in  his  mind,  excludes  every  gloomy  prospeet,  and  fills  it  with  a  perpetual 
serenity.  ^Ey  a  multiplicity  and  variety  of  words,  the  thoughts  and  sentiments  are 
not  set  off  and  accommodated ;  but,  like  David  dressed  out  and  equipped  in  Saul's 
armor,  they  are  encumbered  and  oppressed.  There  is  a  sweetness  and  sacred 
holiness  in  a  mother's  tears,  when  they  are  dropped  and  fall  on  the  face  of  her 
dying  and  expiring  babe,  which  no  eye  can  see,  and  no  one  can  behold,  with  a 
heart  untouched  and  unaffected. 

2.  Sentences  wanting  Words. 

No  word  should  be  omitted  that  is  needed  to  expre.ss  the  irieaning 
correctly,  clearly,  and  forcibly. 

How  shall  wo,  any  other  way,  account  for  it  ?  It  is  not  only  the  duty,  but 
interest,  of  young  persons,  to  be  studious  and  virtuous.  Such  a  law  would  in- 
volve the  good  and  bad,  the  innocent  and  guilty,  in  the  same  calamity.  It  is 
education  which  almost  entirely  forms  the  cliaracter,  the  freedom  or  slavery, 
the  happiness  or  misery,  of  the  world.  Let  us  avoid  the  making  such  amoud- 
menta  as  will  bo  needless.  As  much  propriety  must  be  observed  in  tho  dress 
of  the  old  as  young.— Addison.  Chancery  will  treat  it  as  a  personal  matter,  so 
far  as  respects  the  rights  of  creditors.  Transitive  verbs  have  an  active  and  pas- 
sive participle.       The  speculation  will  produce  great  gain  or  loss.     — or  grcai 


GENERAL  EXERCISES.  245 

loss.  The  people  of  this  country  possess  a  healthy  climate  and  soil.  By  these 
happy  labors,  they  who  sow  and  reap,  will  rejoice  together.  The  court  of 
France  or  England  was  to  be  the  umpire.  He  regards  his  word,  but  you  do 
not.  The  natural  abilities  of  some  men  much  exceed  others.  I  think  his 
works  more  classical  than  all  our  other  liistorians.  We  were  at  the  fair,  and 
saw  every  thing  there.  — that  was  there.  We  speak  that  We  do  know,  and 
testify  to  that  we  have  seen.  A  servant  whose  duty  was  to  take  care  of  the 
children.  — duty  it  was —  Which  road  should  be  taken,  was  not  easy  to  de- 
termine. This  is  what  best  became  us  to  do. — Swift.  He  met  with  such  a 
reception  as  those  only  deserve  who  are  content  to  take. — Id. 

I  do  not  remember  any  place  where  he  said  so.  — he  ever  said  so.  It  is 
foreign  to  the  present  purpose,  to  more  than  allude  to  these  facts.  You  can  not 
read  too  much  of  the  classics,  nor  too  well.  — nor  read  it —  Simon,  son  of 
Jonah,  lovest  thou  me  more  than  these  ?  (Ambiguous.)  At  that  place  we 
were  neither  well  paid  nor  fed.  Not  a  fence  or  fruit-tree  was  to  be  seeii. — 
Irving.  — nor  a —  Groves,  fields,  and  meadows,  are  at  any  season  of  the 
year  pltasant  to  look  upon,  but  never  so  much  as  in  the  opening  of  spring. — 
Addison.  — so  much  so —  I  am  inclined  to  adopt  your  book,  and  encourage 
others  to  do  likewise.  — and  to  encourage —  The  scribes  made  it  their  pro- 
fession to  study  and  teach  the  laws  of  Moses.  The  sale  of  one  farm  or  several 
will  take  place  to-day.  English  verse  is  regulated  rather  by  the  number  of 
syllables  than  of  feet.  There  is  no  situation  so  good  anywhere.  — is  not  any- 
where else  a —  How  can  I  distinguish  the  good  from  bad  ?  He  was  a  warrior  by 
necessity,  if  not  choice.  I  believe  that  when  things  are  at  worst  they  will  cer- 
tainly mend  ;  and  when  they  are  at  best,  they  will  soon  deteriorate. 

His  honor,  interest,  and  religion,  were  all  embarked  in  the  undertaking. 
(Repeat  his.)  I  suppose  iie  preters  her,  because  she  possesses  more  beauty, 
more  accomphshments,  and  wealth,  than  the  other.  By  this  habitual  indeli- 
cacy, tlie  virgins  smiled  at  what  they  blushed  before.  — blushed  at —  By 
such  a  course,  the  progress  of  the  pupil  will  be  greatly  facilitated,  and  many  diffi- 
culties a^'oided.  Such  were  the  first  settlements  in  Texas,  claiming  to  be 
civilized,  but  have  now  passed  away.  It  was  neither  the  buying  lands,  nor 
dealing  in  mules,  but  extravagance  of  his  wife,  that  made  him  a  bankrupt. 
Neither  my  brother  nor  sister  went  to  the  fair.  He  did  not  know  whether  it 
would  be  best  to  sell  his  lot  or  farm.  The  hawk  was  chased  by  the  martins,  as 
well  as  crows.  Whether  we  take  the  upper  or  lower  route,  we  can  not  get 
there  in  two  days.  The  cholera  is  said  to  be  in  ^ew  Orleans  and  vicinity. 
He  is  eminent  both  as  a  lawyer  and  politician.  Not  only  the  peace  of  the 
family  was  broken,  but  tlieir  dignity  considerably  diminished,  by  this  alliance. 

3.  Sentences  faulty  in  Thought  or  Expression. 

1.  The  words,  the  modes  of  expression,  and  the  arrangement,  should 
be  the  best  the  language  affords  for  the  author's  meaning. 

2.  We  should  always  think  with  clearness,  vigor,  and  a  full  compre- 
hension of  the  subject,  and  speak  or  write  accordingly. 

3.  What  is  said  or  written,  should  be  sensible  and  becoming, — or  in 
accordance  with  nature,  truth,  and  reason. 


"All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  correspond  with  one  another: 
a  regular  and  dependent  construction,  throughout,  should  be  carefully 
preserved." — Murray. 

You  may  as  well  spend  the  balance  of  the  evening  with  us.  I  do  not,  how 
ever,  imagine  that  tlie  water-spout  would  have  endangered  the  loss  of  the  sb  ip 


246  GENERAL    EXERCISES. 

"Will  you  fix  the  clock  so  that  it  will  run  ?  The  business  will  suit  any  one 
who  enjoys  bad  health.  Religion  will  afford  us  pleasure,  when  others  forsake 
us.  I  am  willing  to  pay  a  hundred  or  two  dollars.  The  more  I  see  of  his 
conduct,  I  like  him  better.  Form  your  measures  with  prudence,  but  all  anxiety 
about  the  issue  divest  yourself  of.  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from, 
yet  it  may  be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune.  The  Greeks,  fear- 
ing to  be  surrounded  on  all  sides,  \\  heeled  about  and  halted,  with  the  river  on 
their  backs. — Goldsmith.  Replevin  is  when  suit  is  brought  to  recover  properly 
in  the  possession  of  another.*  The  mill  stood  between  the  old  and  new  bridges. 
He  wrote  the  recommendations  both  of  the  first  and  last  editions.  The  man- 
ner of  these  authors'  writing  books  so  fist,  1  will  now  explain,  I  can  not  find 
one  of  my  books.''  We  have  not  the  least  right  to  your  protection.  I  want 
to  see  what  he  wants.  When  if  precedes  a  verb,  it  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood. 
Porter,  however,  lired  some  three  or  four  times  at  Jones,  before  he  fell.  The 
Romans  stipulated  with  the  Cartliagiuians,  to  furnish  them  with  ships  for  trans- 
port and  war, — Arbuthnot.  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  who  built  tne  temple 
of  Jerusalem,  was  the  richest  monarch  that  ever  reigned  over  the  Jewish 
people. 

He  has  little  regard  for  your  and  my  friend's  welfare.  White  sheep  are 
much  more  common  than  black.  The  heads  of  a  panther  and  a  cat  are  similar 
in  shape.  He  is  not  rich,<=  and  incompetent  for  business.  The  furniture  is 
more  sliowy  than  useful ;  but  tliat,  I  suppose,  was  not  takei;i  into  considera- 
tion.^ He  came  on  the  boat,  which  his  friends  expected.^  He  sent  me 
the  books,  which  he  had  promised.''  The  magistrate  punished  him  for 
some  misdemeanor,  wiiich  was  approved.^  Be  honest,  for  it  certainly  is 
the  best  pohcy,''  He  was  thougiit  to  be  very  polite,  which  indeed  he  wa.s 
to  those  of  whom  he  expected  favors.>  He  is  always  still  and  grave,  which 
makes  him  to  be  thouglit  wisej  I  was  thinking  of  the  best  place  for  an 
office,''  This  can  be  made  an  objection  against  one  government  as  well  as  an- 
other. The  valley  of  the  Amazon  is  perhaps  as  large  as  the  Mississippi;  but 
more  of  it  is  overflown.  I  have  that  that  will  keep  you.  There  is  not  a  harder 
part  in  human  nature,  than  becoming  wealth  and  greatness.  This  letter  being 
too  long  for  the  present  paper,  I  intend  to  print  it  by  itself  It  mattered  little 
what  the  nature  of  the  task  was ;  whether  it  were  organizing  an  opposition  to  a 
political  faction,  or  a  troop  of  cavalry  to  resist  invasion. — Prescott. 

The  acceptance  must  also  be  absolute,  and  not  in  any  respect  diflfering  from 
the  bill,  A  paniciple  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  which  denotes  action, 
or  a  state  of  being.  There  is  no  vice  which  mankind  carry  to  such  wild  ex- 
tremes as  that  of  avarice.  It  had  been  better  for  us  to  serve  the  Egyptians,  than  that 
we  should  die  in  the  wilderness.' — Bible.  This  victory  seemed  to  be  like  a  res- 
urrection from  the  dead,  to  the  Eastern  States,  John  Rutledgo  and  John  Jay 
were  nearly  of  an  age.  The  people  had  not  the  wherewith  to  pay  their  debts. 
The  supplying  an  army  by  contractors,  Gen.  Jackson  had  objected  to,  as  iiighly  ob- 
jectionable. Here  it  is  rare  for  throe  fair  days  to  follow  each  other.  Tlie  pre- 
tenders to  polish  and  roline  the  English  language,  have  chiefly  multiplied  abuses 
and  absurdities.  God  heapeth  favors  on  his  servants,  ever  hberal  and  f uthful. 
The  work,  iu  its  full  extent,  being  now  afflicted  with  an  asthma,  and  finding  tlie 
powers  of  life  gradually  declining,  he  had  no  longer  courage  to  undertake.— 
Johmon.  _  Dryden  makes  a  very  handsome  observation  on  Ovid's  writing  a  let- 
ter from  Dido  lo  -(Eneas,  iu  the  Ibllovving  words.       Tlie  perplexity  that  attends 

»  is  a  mode  of  trial  for  the  recovery  of  b  even  one  of,  or,  can  find  all  but  one  ; 

c  nor  Ih  ho  competent,  or,  and  he  is  incompetent 

•1  but  its  utility,  I  spppose,  was  not  taken  into  consideration      c  according  to  the  expectation 

'  as  he  liad  promised  to  do,  or,  according  to  promise  .      if  and  the  punishment 

!■  for  honesty  in  'and  indeed  he  was  so  to  those  j  and  therefore  he  is  thought 

w  wlmt  place  would  be  best  1  than  to  die  in 


GENERAL  EXERCISES.  247 

a  multiplicity  of  criticisms  by  various  hands,  many  of  which  are  sure  to  be  futile, 
many  of  them  ill-founded,  and  some  of  them  contradictory  to  others,  is  incon- 
ceivable.™ 

It  is  an  acknowledged  fact  by  some  of  our  most  experienced  teachers,  &c." 
I  never  heard  mentioned  that  fellow's  being  a  poet  before."  The  long,  undis- 
turbed possession  implies  the  title  to  be  good.?  The  hyena,  they  pretend,  to 
have  been  brought  from  Abyssinia.  By  analyzing  is  meant  the  resolving  cf 
a  sentence  into  its  elements.  The  book  is  meant  to  be  adapted  to  the  capacity 
of  children.  {A.  clumsy  mode  of  expression;  change  the  sentence.)  The 
hosts  stood  stih.  (Want  of  euphony.)  We  were  exceedingly  kindly  treated. 
They  died  and  fought  for  liberty.  (Unnatural  arrangement.)  Intemperance 
]:roduces  death,  misery,  and  want.  Tiie  merciful  are  blessed,  for  they  shall  ob- 
laiu  mercy.  The  family  treated  me  in  the  same  way  that  they  treat  their  own 
sons.q  What  is  the  reason  that  you  are  here  yet  ?■"  By  agitating  and  dis- 
cussion, the  truth  is  elicited.  Some  governments  forfeit  the  property  of  out- 
laws. When  there  is  no  heir,  tha  estate  of  course  f  )rfeits  to  the  state.'  I 
wish  to  cultivate  a  farther  acquaintance  with  you.  Thursday  is  set  aside  for 
thanksgiving  day.*  And  this  is  it  men  mean  by  distributive  justice,  and  is 
properly  termed  equity."  It  was  an  unsuccessful  undertaking,  which,  although 
it  has  failed,  is  no  objection  to  an  enterprise  so  well  concerted.  And  he  entered 
into  a  certain  man's  house  named  Justus,  one  that  worshiped  God.  At  the 
same  time,  there  are  some  defects  which  must  be  acknowledged,  in  his  Odyssey. 
— Blair.  They  were  refused  entrance  into,  and  forcibly  driven  from,  the  house. 
As  the  denominator  is  greater,  the  value  must  be  less. 

Between  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric,  there  exists  a  close  and  happy  con- 
nection ;  which  reigns  through  all  science,  and  extends  to  all  the  powers  of  elo- 
quence.''— Mahan.  (Observe  that  which  here  can  not  properly  represent  theji^ 
identical  connection  mentioned  before  it.)  No  other  employment  beside  a  book- 
seller suited  his  inclinations.  There  is  no  talent  so  useful  toward  rising  in  the 
world,  or  which  puts  men  more  out  of  the  reach  of  fortune,  than  that  quality 
generally  possessed  by  the  dullest  sort  of  people,  and  is,  in  common  language, 
called  discretion.''  Many  would  gladly  exchange  riches  and  honors  for  that 
more  quiet  and  humbler  station  which  you  are  now  dissatisfied  with.  As  the 
guilt  of  an  officer  will  be  greater  than  that  of  a  common  servant,  if  he  prove 
negligent ;  so  the  reward  of  his  fidelity  will  prove  proportionably  greater.  At 
first,  he  was  received  with  great  favorableness,  but  his  stupidness  soon  appeared. 
Tlie  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning  differ  among  one  another.  An  elo- 
quent speaker  may  give  more,  but  not  more  convmcing  arguments,  than  this 
plain  man  offered.       I  favored  him,  because  in  looks  he  favored  my  brother. 

The  wealthy  merchant  and  the  journeyman  tradesman  were  seen  marching 
side  by  side,  and  often  exchanged  the  contents  of  their  canteens  with  each  other.* 
— Hist  of  U.  S.  In  seeking  to  dig  up  one  fact,  it  is  incredible  the  number  of  facts 
I  unearthed. — Irving.  The  asylum  was  founded  upwards  of  two  centuries  since, 
on  an  old  monastic  establishment. — Id.  By  this  system,  money  became  plenty 
— such  as  it  was. — Id.  A  letter  written  by  an  inhabitant  of  that  place,  speaks 
of  the  sudden  apparition  of  the  enemy. — Irving^s  Washington.  The  blunder 
was  detected  on  an  order  being  issued  for  a  new  supply  of  cartridges.'  — Id. 
So  they  sat  drinking,  and  smoking,  and  telling  stories,  and  singing  Dutch  and 
Irish  songs,  without  understanding  a  word  each  other  said. — Irving.     I  know 

J"  of  which  many  n  a  fact  acknowledged  ^  heard  that  fellow  mentioned 

as  being  a  poet,  or,  heard  it  mentioned  that  that  fellow  is  v  that  the  title  is  good 

H  me  as  they  ^  Why  are  you  '  escheats  t  set  apart  "  is  what 

men  mean  ....  and  what  v  Grammar  ....  have  ....  and  such  a  connection  reigns,  indeed 
through  >■  which  Is  generally  ....  and  which  ia  ^  shared  the  contents 

when  an  order  was  issued. 


248  GENERAL  EXERCISES. 

that  all  words  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas  furnish  matter  of  mistake  and 
cavil. — Locke.  No  nation  can  or  have  any  right  to  look  for  respect  abroad  as 
being  just,  that  is  not  first  honest  at  home. — Swift.  Which  when  Beelzebub 
perceived,  than  whom  none  higher  sat.  (An  uncouth  knarl;  rather  say,  ^Hhan 
who,"  or,  "  than  /le,"  or,  "  none  higher  sat  than  Ae.") 

I  beg  the  favor  of  your  acceptance  of  a  copy  of  a  view  of  the  manufactories  of  the 
West  Riding  of  the  county  of  York.  When  one  gives  one's  self  the  liberty  to 
range  and  run  over  in  one's  thoughts  the  difiereut  geniuses  of  men  which  one 
meets  in  the  world,  one  can  not  but  observe,  that  most  of  the  indirection  and 
artifice,  which  is  used  among  men,  does  not  proceed  so  much  from  a  degeneracy 
in  nature,  as  an  affectation  of  appearing  men  of  consequence  by  such  practices.* 
— British  Essayists.  (Too  many  ones ;  there  are  also  other  faults.)  The  awful 
distance  which  wo  bear  towards  her  in  all  our  thoughts  of  her,  and  that  cheerful 
familiarity  with  which  we  approach  her,  are  certain  instances  of  her  being  the 
truest  object  of  love  of  any  of  her  sex. — lb.  Never  delay  till  to-morrow,  (for 
to-morrow  is  not  yours;  and,  though  you  should  hve  to  enjoy  it,  you  must  not 
overload  it  with  a  burden  not  its  own,)  what  reason  and  conscience  tell  you 
ought  to  be  performed  to-day.  (Take  out  the  parenthesis,  and  put  it  after  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  in  a  separate,  distinct  sentence.)  The  discontented  man 
(as  his  spleen  irritates  and  sours  his  temper,  and  leads  him  to  discharge  his  venom 
on  all  with  whom  he  stands  connected)  ia  never  without  a  great  share  of  ma- 
lignity. 

Last  Saturday  a  gang  of  highwaymen  broke  into  an  empty  house,  and  strip- 
ped it  of  all  its  furniture. — Newspaper.  It  is  always  objectionable  to  use  the 
same  word  too  often.  In  familiar  conversation  we  frequently  make  use  of  eUip- 
sis.»*  (To  make  use  of  a  nonentity,  or  of  the  absence  of  a  thing,  is  absurd.)  A 
vest  which  from  a  naked  Pict  his  grandsire  had  won.  When  a  person  is 
spoken  to,  he  is  of  the  second  person.''''  The  use  of  which  accents  [Greek  and 
Koman]  we  have  now  entirely  lost.'"^ — Blair.  (We  never  had  them  to  lose.) 
Our  modern  pronunciation  must  have  appeared  to  them  [the  G-reeks  and  Romans] 
a  hfeless  monotony.'^'' — Id.  (They  never  heard  it.)  To  be  convicted  of  bribery, 
was  then  a  crime  altogether  unpardonable.® «  Orthography  means  word-mak- 
ing, or  spelling.'"'" — Smithes  Grammar.  Abercrombie  had  still  nearly  four  times 
the  number  of  the  enemy.s^ — Irving.  The  Latin  tongue,  in  its  purity,  never 
was  in  this  country.''''  The  notions  of  Lord  Sunderland  were  always  good; 
but  he  was  a  man  of  extravagant  habits. 

The  following  erroneous  sentences,  which  are  taken  from  Whatley's  Logic, 
belong  to  the  class  called  fallacies.  Most  fallacies  arise  because  the  same  word 
has  often  several  different  meanings,  or  because  it  may  be  applied  to  objects 
of  the  same  general  class,  with  greater  or  less  comprehensiveness. 

None  but  whites  are  civilized:  the  ancient  Germans  were  whites:  therefore 
tliey  were  civilized.  (Observe  here  that  the  whites  referred  to  in  the  second 
proposition  are  uoue  of  the  whites  referred  to  in  the  first  proposition.)  Nothing 
is  heavier  than  platina :  feathers  are  heavier  than  nothing :  therefore  feathers 
are  heavier  than  platina.  (My  dog  has  more  legs  than  no  dog :  no  dog  has 
twelve  legs:  therefore  my  dog  has  more  than  twelve  legs.)  All  cold  is  ex- 
polled  by  heat:  this  person's  disorder  is  a  cold:  therefore  it  is  to  be  expelled 
by  heat.  He  who  is  most  hungry,  eats  most :  he  who  eats  least,  is  most  hungry : 
therefore  he  who  eats  least,  eats  most.  Whatever  body  is  m  motion,  must  move 
eitber  m  the  place  where  it  is,  or  in  a  place  where  it  is  not:  neither  of  these 
18  possible :  therefore  there  is  no  such  thing  as  motion. 

»  When  a  person,  &c.  an  ellipses  are  frequently  allowed  W'  Wlien  a 

person  is  apolcen  to,  the  noun  or  pronoun  used  for  addressing  him  is  c.-  is 

J^^^M  «,^H„        '"''"'I-  ^'^''f.  appeared  •  e  Bribery  was  (f  means,  literally. 

correct  writing         tfg  four  times  as  many  men  hu  was  never  spoken,  in  its  purity,  in. 


GENERAL    EXERCISES.  249 

Miscellaneous  Examples  to  be  Corrected. 

Honor  or  reputation  are  dearer  than  life. — Bouvier. 

Mr.  Burke  was  offered  a  very  important  and  lucrative  ofiice. — Goodrich. 

The  protest  laid  quietly  on  the  table. — Irving. 

To  this,  in  a  great  measure,  has  been  attributed  the  successes  of  the  Moslems. 
— /rf. 

You  have  chose  the  worse. — Id. 

The  greater  part  of  tlie  forces  were  retired  into  winter-quarters. — Id. 

Wa.^hington  was  given  the  command  of  a  division  partly  composed  of  his  own 
men. — Id.  ' 

She  doubted  whether  this  were  not  all  delusion,  and  whether  she  was  not 
Htill  in  the  palace. — Id. 

The  Indian  chief  and  his  son,  being  a  small  distance  from  the  line  of  march, 
was  surrounded  and  taken. — Id. 

Where  will  we  find  such  merry  groups  now-a-days  ? — Id. 

Sir  Walter  speaks  to  every  one  as  if  they  were  his  blood  relations. — Id. 

The  right  wing  was  composed  of  Glover's,  Mason's,  and  Patterson's  regi- 
ments.— Id. 

Burgoyne  was  stated  as  being  arrived  at  Quebec  to  command  the  forces  in  an 
invasion  from  Canada. — Id. 

Were  Aristotle  or  I'lato  to  come  among  us,  thej-  would  find  no  contrast  more 
complete  than  between  the  workshops  of  their  Athens  and  those  of  New  York. 
— Bancroft. 

On  rather  a  narrow  strip  of  land. — E.  Everett. 

We  had  fortunately  engaged  rooms  at  the  only  decent  inn  at  Melrose,  and 
after  supper  went  out  at  nine  o'clock  to  see  the  abbey. — Id. 

To  the  antiquary  and  artist,  these  columns  are  a  source  of  inexhaustible  ob- 
servations and  designs. — Byron. 

That  fortune,  fame,  power,  life,  hath  named  themselves  a  star. — Id. 

He  knew  not  what  it  was  to  die. — Id. 
And  goodly  sons  grew  by  his  side. 
But  none  so  lovely  and  so  brave 
As  him  who  withered  in  the  grave. — Id. 

Sir  Henry  Wotton  used  to  say  that  critics  were  like  brushers  of  noblemen's 
clothes. — Bacon. 

Let  them  the  state  adorn,  and  he  defend. —  Cowletj. 

A  steed  comes  at  morning ;  no  rider  is  there. 

But  its  bridle  is  red  with  the  sign  of  despair. — Campbell. 

His  curse  be  on  him.     He  who  knovveth  where 

The  lightnings  hide. — Mrs.  Sigourney. 

My  robe,  and  my  integrity  to  Heaven,  is  all  I  now  dare  call  my  own. — 
Shakespeare. 

A  silk  dress  or  a  flowered  bonnet  were  then  great  rarities. — History  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Thomas  Penn,  soon  after  his  arrival,  aided  by  seven  special  commissioners, 
entered  upon  the  adjustment  of  the  southern  boundary,  and  running  the  line  be- 
tween the  proprietaries  and  Lord  Baltimore. — lb.     (Recast  the  sentence.) 

Mr.  Dana  asked  Mr.  Gore's  leave  to  say  a  few  words,  which  he  did ;  after 
which  he  retired  from  the  Convention. — Elliofs  Debates. 

What  is  seventy-five  cents,  or  even  a  dollar,  an  acre  ? — lb. 

The  miller  was  bound  to  have  returned  the  flour. — Kent. 

The  true  rule  was  stated  to  be  that  the  seller  was  liable  to  an  action  of  deceit, 
if  he  fraudulently  misrepresent  the  thing  sold. — Id. 


250  GENERAL    EXERCISES. 

To  inquire  whether  or  no  the  party  be  an  idiot  or  lunatic. — Mo.  Statutes. 
The  constable  shall  execute  such  jury  summons  fairly  and  impartially,  and 
shall  not  summon  any  person  whom  he  has  reason  to  believe  is  biased  or  prej- 
udiced for  or  against  either  of  the  parties. — lb. 

It  is  a  full  two  hours  to  dinner. — Harper^s  Magazine. 
The  two  electric  fluids  neutralized  each  others'  effects. — lb. 
My  suspicions  were  being  more  and  more  confirmed  every  minute. — lb. 
Now,  then,  what  should  you  think  water  was  composed  of? — //;. 
Of  the  other  two  there  exists  only  the  first  book,  and  the  plan  of  the 
second. — lb. 

It  is  a  little  child  of  two  years  old. — lb. 
He  knew  not  which  to  most  admire. — lb. 
"We  have  other  two  remarks  to  ofler. — lb. 

Barnabas  and  his  brother  became,  as  companions  in  crime  usually  do,  sus- 
picious of  one  another. — lb. 

In  England,  every  one  is  free  as  soon  as  they  touch  the  land. — lb. 

There  was  the  house  and  out-buildings,  all  of  an  unfashionable  kind. — lb. 

It  was  I  who  destroyed  Ehrenberg's  theory  that  the  volvox  globator  was  an 
animal. — Atlantic  Monthly. 

Which  phrase,  if  it  mean  anything,  means  paper  money. — fb. 

Some  virtues  are  only  seen  in  adversity. — Eclectic  Magazine. 

I  shall  be  happy  always  to  see  my  friends. — lb. 

lie  not  only  watched  a  good  opportunity  to  liberate  his  prisoner,  but  swam 
with  him  across  the  river  on  his  back. — Beligiom  Memoirs. 

The  queen  bore  all  her  duties  stoutly,  as  she  expected  others  to  bear 
them. — Hist,  of  Netherlands. 

Each  occupied  their  several  premises,  and  farmed  their  own  land. — Jefferson. 

New  York,  with  several  posts  in  the  neighborhood,  were  in  possession  of  tho 
enemy. — Id. 

My  residence  is  at  present  at  his  lordship's,  where  I  might,  was  my  heart  dis- 
engaged, pass  my  time  very  agreeably,  as  there  is  a  very  amiable  young  lady 
lives  at  the  same  house. —  Washington's  Letters. 

We  have  much  to  say  on  the  subject  of  this  Life,  and  wiU  often  find  ourselves 
to  dissent  from  the  opinions  of  the  biographer. — Macaulay. 

If  we  examine  with  minuteness  the  falling  snow,  we  will  observe  that  each 
flake  consists  of  a  number  of  exceedingly  delicate  particles  of  ice. — E.  Sargent. 

But  we  willjEiil  of  our  conviction,  if  we  have  not  made  it  evident,  &c. —  Gritiqtie 
on  Worcester. 

A  squirrel  can  climb  a  tree  quicker  than  a  boy. —  Webster. 

Parents  are  of  all  other  people  tiio  very  worst  judges  of  their  childreii's  merits ; 
for  what  they  reckon  such,  is  seldom  any  thing  else  but  a  repetition  of  their  own 
faults. — Addison. 

The  having  a  grammar  of  our  mother-tongue  first  taught,  would  facilitate  our 
youths  learning  their  Latin  and  Greek  grammars. — Id. 

We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compounding  tho^e  images 
which  we  have  received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision. — Id. 

Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man, 
the  things  which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that  love  him. — Murray's  Gram. 

By  intercourse  with  wise  and  experienced  persons,  who  know  the  world,  we 
may  improve  and  rub  off  the  rust  of  a  private  education. — lb. 

Prepositions,  you  recollect,  connect  words,  as  well  as  conjunctions ;  how,  tlien, 
can  you  tc  U  the  one  from  the  other  ? — Smith. 

Precept  L  Avoid  low  and  provincial  expressions.  Precept  8.  Observe 
tlio  natural  order  of  things  or  events,  and  do  not  put  the  cart  before  ilia 
liorse. —  Goold  Browri. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  251 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS. 


In  speaking  or  writing,  we  should  avoid  redundancy,  deficiency,  tautology, 
ambiguity,  obscurity,  affectation,  pedantry,  vulgarity,  silliness,  falseness,  absurdity, 
nonsense,  self-contradiction,  and  any  phraseology  that  is  not  the  best  the  lan- 
guage affords. 

In  general,  the  fewer  the  words  we  use  to  express  our  meaning,  the  better. 
Many  of  the  most  esteemed  and  durable  paragraphs  in  our  hterature,  are  such 
as  tell  much  in  very  tew  words.  It  is  easy  to  multiply  words ;  but  it  is  dis- 
agreeable to  be  obliged  to  read  through  a  large  volume,  to  get  what  might  have 
been  told  u&  as  well  in  a  small  pamphlet. 

To  the  abundant  or  excessive  use  of  words,  we  commonly  apply  the  terms 
verbosity,  pleonasm,  redundancy,  and  tautology.  Verbosity  implies  the  use  of 
circuitous  expressions,  or  it  is  the  telling  of  things  in  a  round-about  way :  it  is 
opposed  to  sententiousness  or  conciseness.  "  Tliey  who  first  settled  in  the  country, 
made  choice  of  the  most  desirable  lands;"  better,  "  The  first  settlers  took  the 
best  lands."  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  some  word  or  expression  that  is  not  es- 
sential, but  still  adds  to  the  vigor  of  the  sentence;  as,  "I  saw  it  with  my  own 
eyes;"  "Busk  ye,  busk  ye,  my  bonny,  bonny  bride;"  "  One  of  the  few,  the  im- 
mortal names,  that  were  not  born  to  die."  Redundancy  is  a  needless  repetition  of 
words,  or  a  needless  fullness  of  expression ;  as,  "  We  both  of  us  went  on  the  same 
day,  and,  besides,  moreover,  we  both  of  us  returned  back  on  the  same  day;"  cor- 
rected, "Both  of  us  went  and  returned  the  same  day."  Tautology  is  the  telling 
of  the  same  thing,  or  nearly  the  same  thing,  again  and  again,  in  other  ways. 
"  The  dawn  is  overcast,  the  morning  lowers,  and  heavily  in  clouds  brings  on  the 
day." — Addison,  as  quoted  and  criticised  by  Johnson.  "  Let  observation,  with  ex- 
tensive view,  survey  mankind  from  China  to  Peru." — Johnson  himself.  As  much 
as  to  say,  "Let  observation,  with  extensive  observation,  observe  mankind  from 
China  to  Peru.  Law  and  lawyers  abound  in  tautology  and  redundancy,  and 
sometimes  in  needless  technical  terms. 

It  is  generally  much  easier  to  find  other  ways  of  teUing  the  same  thing,  than 
to  add  more  new  thoughts  to  what  is  already  said ;  hence  it  very  often  happens 
that  persons,  in  order  to  fill  up  the  time  or  paper,  add  new  words  and  expression' 
without  adding  new  ideas :  they  string  together  synonymous  terms  and  ex 
pressions,  just  as  if  they  meant  to  repeat  what  they  have  learned  in  some  dic- 
tionary. It  is  said  that  Daniel  Webster  resolved — "  Never  to  use  a  word  th;it 
does  not  add  some  new  idea,  or  modify  some  idea  already  expressed."  Those 
words  may  in  general  be  omitted,  which  are  readily  inferred,  by  the  hearer  or 
reader,  from  the  words  that  are  given ;  and  those  thoughts  may  be  left  unex- 
pressed, which  are  readily  inferred  from  the  thoughts  that  are  expressed.  The 
chief  faults  to  be  guarded  against  in  seeking  for  brevity  of  expression,  are  ob- 
scurity and  deficiency ;  which  frequently  arise  from  the  use  of  very  general  and 
comprehensive  terms,  and  from  the  omission  of  words.  The  allowable  or  elegant 
omission  of  words  is  termed  ellipsis.  Dialogue,  and  discourse  uttered  under  the 
influence  of  great  excitement,  are  most  frequently  elliptical. 

Coleridge,  to  give  his  notion  of  a  perfect  style,  once  said  that  he  had  lately 
read,  of  Southey's  prose,  several  pages  so  well  written  that  nothing  in  them 
presented  itself  to  his  mind  except  the  author's  meaning,— that  no  word,  no 
mode  of  expression,  and  no  jar  in  the  train  of  thought,  diverted  or  drew  his  at- 
tention. A  perfect  style,  then,  is  so  transparent  a  medium  for  the  thought  as  to 
become  itself  mvisible, — a  train  of  words  presenting  the  meaning  so  well  and  im- 
pressively that  it  passes  by  itself  unobserved.  It  has  been  truly  said,  "Nature's 
chief  masterpiece  is  writing-well."  A  person's  skill  in  style  depends  chiefly  on 
his  knowledge,  judgment,  and  taste,  and  his  practice  in  composition.  His  dis- 
course should  be,  throughout,  one  entire,  consistent,  congruous,  and  perfect  pic- 
ture of  all  that  is  pertinent  to  the  subject,  his  aim,  and  the  reader's  capacity; 


2&2  GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS. 

presenting  neitlier  too  much  nor  too  little.  Nothing  important  should  be  left 
cut,  and  nothing  useless  should  be  allowed  to  come  in.  In  short,  the  piece 
should  be  such  that  no  word,  phrase,  clause,  senteucG,  or  paragraph,  can  bo 
omitted,  inserted,  transposed,  or  changed,  without  injuring  the  excellence  of  the 
whole.  The  natural  order  of  things  shoul  i  be  observed,  or  such  an  order  as  will 
make  the  greatest  impression.  If  thoughtful  of  what  we  are  saying,  we  would 
hardly  say,  "He  dressed  and  washed  himself;"  "  He  tumbled,  head  over  heols, 
into  the  river;"  "  He  will  kill,  steal,  cheat,  and  lie,  for  gold."  Things  that  have 
no  connection,  should  not  be  jumbled  together;  as,  "I  am  well,  and  hope  you 
have  got  my  last  letter."  We  should  not  be  so  flighty  as  to  say  something  on 
one  topic,  then  pass  to  another  topic,  then  come  again  to  the  first  topic ;  nor  should 
we,  in  a  subsequent  part  of  the  discourse,  tell,  as  if  we  had  not  told,  what  we 
have  already  told  ;  nor  make  any  statement  inconsistent  with  some  other  state- 
ment at  some  distance  before  it. 

The  transition  from  one  topic  to  another  should  be  natural  and  easy.  Not 
80  many  different  subjects  should  be  introduced  into  one  sentence  as  wUl  make 
it  confused.  The  most  important  parts  should  be  placed  where  they  wU.1  make 
the  strongest  impression.  Modifying  parts  should  be  so  placed  or  distributed  as 
to  encumber  the  discourse  as  little  as  possible,  and  to  show  clearly  and  readily 
what  they  are  intended  to  modify.  The  longer  and  more  important  parts  of  a 
sentence  should  generally  follow  the  shorter  and  less  important  parts.  To  con- 
clude a  sentence  with  an  insignificant  word  or  phrase,  is  always  inelegant. 

When  a  serial  structure  has  been  adopted,  it  is  generally  disagreeable  to  dis- 
continue or  to  change  it,  before  the  entire  enumeration  is  made.  Parts  con- 
trasted or  emphatically  distinguished,  should  generally  be  expressed  with  full- 
ness. "  It  is  not  by  indolence,  but  by  diligence,  that  you  wiU  succeed." 
"  Spring  borrowed  a  now  charm  from  its  undulating  grounds,  its  luxuriant  wood- 
lands, its  sportive  streams,  its  vocal  birds,  and  its  blushing  fiowers."  Parts  con- 
nected by  correlative  words,  and  parts  implying  contrast  or  comparison,  must 
generally  be  expressed  so  nearly  alike  as  possible.  Observe  the  elegance  of  ar- 
rangement and  expresssion  in  the  following  sentence  :  "  Homer  hurries  us  with 
a  commanding  impetuosity;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty:  Homer 
scatters  with  a  generous  profusion ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnificence." 
— Pope. 

Short  sentences  and  long  ones  should  be  properly  intermixed.  Many  short 
sentences,  in  succession,  are  apt  to  have  a  disagreeable  hitching  or  jerking  eflfect ; 
and  long-winded  sentences  also  displease,  by  becoming  tiresome  or  tedious.  Most 
of  the  best  modern  writers  rather  prefer  short  sentences  and  simple  structure,  to 
long  and  complicated  sentences.  Long  and  involved  sentences  should  generally 
bo  avoided,  by  expressing  the  same  meaning  in  two  or  more  shorter  sentences. 
A  long  parenthesis  within  a  sentence  is  generally  better  expressed  by  taking  it 
out,  and  putting  it  after  or  before  the  other  part,  as  a  distinct  sentence.  It  is 
sometimes  better  to  recast  a  disagreeable  sentence  altogether ;  or  to  dismiss  it, 
and  to  express  the  meaning  in  some  other  way.  Mr.  Bancroft  says,  in  his  His- 
tory, "  Private  interest,  directed  to  the  culture  of  a  valuable  staple,  was  more 
productive  than  the  patronage  of  England;  and  tobacco  enriched  Virginia." 
Here  the  tobacco  clause  is  hitched  on  very  abruptly  and  awkwardly ;  just  as  if  the 
author  did  not  know  what  to  do  with  it.  Perhaps  Macaulay  would  have  said : 
"  Private  interest,  directed  to  the  culture  of  a  valuable  staple,  was  more  pro- 
ductive than  the  patronage  of  England.  The  Virginians  turned  their  attention 
to  tobacco ;  and  tobacco  enriched  them." 

In  sele{;ting  words,  or  modes  of  expression,  the  question  is  not  whether  they 
are  perfectly  adapted  to  express  the  meaning,  but  whether  they  are  the  best  the 
language  affords  for  the  moaning ;  if  they  are,  then  they  are  proper.  The  pref- 
erence should,  in  general,  be  given  to  tliose  words  and  expressions  which  arc 
most  popular,   or  understood  by  the  greatest  number  of  people:  and  whose 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIOI^S.  ^8^ 

fundamental  meaning,  when  they  are  analyzed,  or  traced  to  their  etymology,  ac- 
cords best  with  the  sense  in  which  we  mean  to  use  them. 

Our  little  words  of  one  or  two  syllables,  and  our  pithy  idioms,  are  generally 
the  best.  A  great  master  of  language  says :  "  Saxon  words  can  not  be  used  too 
frequently.  They  abridge  and  condense,  and  smack  of  life  and  experience,  and 
form  the  nerve  and  sinew  of  the  best  writings  of  the  day;  while  the  Latin  is  the 
fat.  The  Saxon  puts  small  and  convenient  handles  to  things,  handles  that  are 
easy  to  grasp;  while  your  ponderous  Johnsonian  phraseology  extends  and  ex- 
aggerates, and  never  peels  the  chaff  from  the  wheat."  Dr.  Johnson  said,  "  The 
Rehearsal  has  not  life  enough  to  keep  it  sweet;"  but  immediately  recollecting 
himself,  he  added,  "  It  possesses  not  sufficient  vitality  to  preserve  it  from  putre- 
faction." He  defines  net-work  so  that  no  lady  can  fail  to  have  a  clearer  idea  of 
it  than  she  ever  had  before  :  "  Any  thing  reticulated  or  decussated,  with  inter- 
stices at  equal  distances  between  the  intersections." 

"We  should  never  use  foreign  words,  expressions,  or  idioms,  when  we  have 
native  ones  that  wiU  express  the  meaning  as  well.  Such  a  use  of  languages  is 
nonsensical,  affected,  and  pedantic.  "  Is  Lizzie  on  the  carpet  adhiu:  f  Are  things 
still  in  statu  quo  f  I  shall  put  out  in  a  few  days,  and  go  quo  animus  feri ; — ^you 
know  where." — From  a  Letter.  *'  Tres  humble  serviteur.  Et  comment  sa  porte. 
Mademoiselle  ?  Why  you  look  divinely.  But,  mou  enfant,  they  have  dressed 
you  out  most  diabolically.  Why,  what  a  coiffure  must  you  have  !  and,  oh  mou 
Dieu !  a  total  absence  of  rouge.  But  perhaps  you  are  out." — Foote :  Englishman 
retwrned  from,  Paris. 

The  following  paragraph  is  composed  in  the  French  idiom :  "  I  no  sooner 
found  myself  here  than  I  visited  my  new  apartments,  which  are  composed  of 
five  pieces;  the  small  room,  which  gives  upon  the  garden,  is  practised  through 
the  great  one,  and  there  is  no  other  issue.  As  I  was  exceeded  with  fatigue,  1 
no  sooner  made  my  toilette  tlian  I  let  myself  fall  upon  a  bed  of  repo.se,  where 
sleep  came  to  surprise  me." 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  what  is  genuine  English  idiom.  Our  lan- 
guage, being  formed  from  several  others,  has  idioms  from  them  all.  To  what 
extent  foreign  idioms  may  be  allowed  in  our  poetry,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine, 
I  inchne  to  think,  that  in  the  whole  of  our  poetry — Euglish,  Welsh,  Scotch, 
Irish,  and  American — may  be  found  all  the  naturally  intelligible  idioms  from  all 
the  foreign  languages  that  our  writers  ever  studied. 

It  is  possible  to  make  discourse  out  of  words  merely ;  that  is,  without  having 
vivid  ideas  of  things  themselves.  Words  are  often  strung  together  gram- 
matically, and  with  just  enough  sense  or  propriety  to  avoid  absurdity.  Such 
emptiness  of  expression  may  be  termed  nonsense.  It  comes  from  dull  minds,  or 
from  indolent  or  vacant  states  of  the  mind.  Thus  it  happened  that  a  certain 
Spanish  poet  could  not  tell  what  his  own  sonnet  meant,  and  thus  have  been 
produced  hundreds  of  unmeaning  paragraphs  in  our  htorature.  Hence  we  can 
not  be  too  careful,  or  use  too  great,  efforts,  in  getting  at  clear  and  distinct  ideas. 
Indeed,  vivid,  statuesque  ideas  are  the  greatest  charm,  or  that  which,  above  all 
things  else,  enchains  the  hearer  or  reader.  Truth — truth  wortli  learning  and 
remembering,  is  the  first  quality ;  and  the  next  is  beauty, 

A  common  species  of  nonsense  and  pedantry  is  the  grandiloquent  use  of 
learned  language,  when  the  speaker  or  writer  has  nothing  to  say,  or  does  not 
Jiimself  comprehend,  or  only  in  a  shadowy  way,  what  he  protends  to  explain  or 
prove  to  others. 

Ex. — "The  thinkable,  even  when  compelled  by  analysis  to  make  the  nearest 
approach  that  is  possible  to  a  negation  of  intelligibility,  thus  impUes  phenom- 
ena objectified  by  thought,  and  conceived  to  exist  in  space  and  time."  ("If 
thou  hast  any  tidings,"  says  Falstaflfto  Pistol,  "prithee,  deliver  them  like  a  man 
of  this  world.") 

Language  of  this  kind  is  mostly  found  in  spiritual  or  transcendentiil  writers 


254  GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS. 

and  speakers;  especially  divines  and  metaphysicians.  In  fact,  we  are  all  liable 
to  use  language  thus,  whenever  we  attempt  to  draw  forth  into  light  what  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  limited  faculties  of  the  soul. 

Another  species  of  pedantry  or  affectation  is  the  excessive  or  needless  use  or 
technical  language.  "  Lay  in  your  oars,  my  lads  ;  step  the  short  mast — close- 
reef  the  storm-lug,  and  beach  the  galley  under  canvas."— i^rom  a  Novel.  None 
but  a  seaman  knows  what  is  meant  here.  Most  people  are  too  indolent  to  search 
out  the  meanings  of  the  words  they  do  not  understand,  nor  is  it  always  con- 
venient to  do  so.  In  writing  a  scientific  treatise,  or  in  addressing  scientific  per-, 
sons,  technical  language  may  sometimes  be  necessary  or  most  appropriate. 

Another  species  of  pedantry,  or  rather,  of  affectation,  is  the  ridiculous  aping, 
in  fine  or  pompous  language,  of  those  people  who  are  deemed  worthy  of 
imitation. 

Ex. — "Administer  your  proposition;  you  will  have  my  concurrence,  sir,  in 
any  thing  that  does  not  derogate  from  the  regulations  of  conduct ;  for  it  would 
be  most  preposterous  in  one  of  my  character  to  deviate  from  the  strictest  atten- 
tion. Nor  would  there.  Sir  Gregory,  did  circumstances  concur  as  j'ou  insinuate, 
be  so  absolute  a  certitude,  that  I,  who  have  rejected  so  many  matches,  should 
instantaneously  succumb.  And  had  not  Penelope  Trifle  framed  irrefra.j:able  res- 
olutions, she  need  not  so  long  have  retained  her  fomily  name." — Foote,  ridi- 
culing an  old  maid. 

Much  akin  to  the  foregoing  fault  is  silliness,  wliich  also  should  bo  carefully 
avoided. 

A  popular  book  on  physic,  thus  describes  the  process  of  eating : — 

"  Prehension,  or  the  taking  of  food  into  the  mouth,  is  performed  mainly  by 
the  hand,  assisted  by  the  lips  and  cheeks,  as  well  as  the  anterior  teeth  and  the 
tongue.  The  contact  of  the  solid  food  with  the  interior  of  the  mouth,  excites 
the  act  of  mastication,  performed  by  alternating  contractions  of  the  muscles 
which  pull  the  lov.^er  jaw  upward,  downward,  backward,  forward,  and  iatorally, 
by  acting  on  the  bone  in  which  they  are  implanted."  v 

To  defer  the  main  subject  in  order  to  define  the  meaning  of  words,  borders 
frequently  upon  silliness ;  and  so  does  most  of  the  unbecomingly  florid  or  figura- 
tive language.  These  two  faults  may  be  termed  the  sophomoric  style,  as  being 
naturally  and  generally  found  in  the  half-green  and  half-ripe  age  of  college  sopho- 
mores. Similar  to  silliness  of  expression  is  another  fault,  which  I  have  often 
noticed,  and  which  sometimes  affects  whole  communities  as  well  as  individuals. 
It  is  the  hackneyed  use  of  some  particular  word,  phrase,  or  sentence. 

Some  people  are  always  guessing;  some,  reckoning ;  some,  calculating;  and 
Bome,  ^spodng :  some  find  everything  sweet;  some,  first-rate;  some,  mighty 
good ;  some,  mighty  bad ;  and  others  have  all  things  in  the  superlative  degree : 
some  always  respond  with  a  "Tliat'sso,"  '' Did  you  ever  1"  "Yes?"  "  Well,  to 
be  sure  I"  or,  "That's  a  fact."  A  certain  poHtician  was  never  known  to  make  a 
speech  without  having  ''our  great  and  glorious  Union"  in  it.  Some  speeches 
are  flooded  with  "my  fellow-citizens."  In  England,  whatever  pleases,  is  "m'ce;" 
in  the  United  States,  ''fine:'  Poets  often  exhibit  this  fault  in  their  use  of 
rhymes.  In  fact,  the  fault  seems  to  be  a  natural  infirmity  of  the  human  mind, 
whenever  it  becomes  morbid  or  indolent,  or  when  it  comes  to  a  stand  in  the 
growth  of  its  knowledge.  Wo  are  often  annoyed  by  remembered  scraps  buzzing 
in  the  head  Uke  gadfiies,  especially  if  they  find  there  something  of  a  Pegasus. 

Low,  vulgar,  or  provincial  expressions  should  bo  avoided.  Such  are,  "  To 
get  into  a  scrape,"  "To  play  the  'possum,"  "To  acknowledge  the  corn," 
"To  cut  shmes,"  "To  bark  up  the  wrong  tree,"  "To  get  the  hang  of,"  "To 
liave  a  fiiir  shake  at,"  and  many  others,  which  we  decline  to  quote  for  fear 
the  l§arner  should  catch  them.  Some  of  these  low  yet  current  expressions  are 
bo  well  founded  and  so  energetic  that  they  should  ratiier  be  regarded  as  gold 


GENRRAL    OBSERVATIONS.  255 

in  bullion,  that  has  not  yet  received  the  stamp ;  and  there  are  many  of  them 
wliieh  our  people,  especially  the  politicians,  could  hardly  spare. 

A  departure  from  grammatical  accuracy,  or  from  elegance,  is  sometimes  al- 
lou-ed,  in  order  to  represent  more  faithfully  the  language  or  character  of  another. 
*^ Child.  Once,  when  I  sat  upon  her  lap,  I  felt  a  beating  at  her  side  ;  and  she 
told  me  'twas  her  heart  that  beat,  and  bade  me  feel  for  mine,  and  they  both  beat 
alike,  only  mine  beat  the  quickest  And  I  feel  my  heart  beating  yet — but  hers 
lean  not  feel  I"  Had  the  author  here  said  "more  quickly,''''  he  would  have 
shown  at  once,  not  the  pathetic  prattle  of  the  child  over  iis  dead  mother,  but 
his  own  counterfeiting,  and  tlius  spoibd  the  dramatic  effect.  Hence,  too, 
Cowper  makes  Mrs.  Gilpin  say:  "So  you  must  ride  on  horseback  after  we" 
To  this  head  may  also  be  referred  the  imitations  of  brogues  and  dialects. 

All  uncouth,  harsh,  antiquated,  obsolete,  unauthorized,  or  new-fangled  terms 
should  generally  be  avoided,  unless  they  are  meant  to  be  imitative,  or  are  pecu- 
liarly appropriate  and  expressive. 

ignorant  people  often  pervert  words,  or  confound  words  that  resemble  in 
sound,  or  imagine  that  words  belong  to  the  language  that  are  not  in  it,  or  not 
authorized ;  as,  critter  for  creature ;  disgracious  for  ungracious  ;  prehaps  for  per- 
haps;  contagious  for  contiguous.  "He  was  much  effected  by  the  operation." 
"They  got  out  a  capeas  horpus."  A  certain  man  "  meant  to  run  a  revenue  up 
to  his  house,  build  a  pizarro  in  front,  a  portorico  behind,  a  conservatory  on  top, 
and  treat  his  friends  in  the  most  hospital  manner." 

The  same  word  or  the  same  mode  of  expression  should  not  be  so  often 
used  as  to  indicate  poverty  of  language ;  nor  in  so  maiiy  different  senses  as 
to  render  the  meaning  doubtful,  or  disappoint  disagreeably  the  expectation  of 
the  reader. 

"When  there  are  several  synonymous  words  or  expressions,  great  care  sliould 
be  taken  to  select  the  most  appropriate  one.  "An  idle  boy  is  unwilling  to  be 
employed  :"  say  rather,  "A  lazy  boy,"  &c.  Idle  means  not  doing,  or  not  effecting 
much  ;  lazy  means  unwilling  to  do.  "  The  proud  pile  is  of  great  magnitude,  and 
soars  grandly  up  with  its  numerous  towers  and  splendid  terraces." — Travels  in 
Europe.  I  believe  soars  is  applied  only  to  what  leaves  its  support ;  therefore  it 
can  not  be  applied  to  an  editice :  say,  "  n'ses."  If  our  language  had  no  word 
nearer  to  the  meaning  than  soars,  then  soars  would  be  proper.  In  order  to  dis- 
criminate words,  it  may  be  useful  to  the  student  to  keep  in  mind  the  three  fol- 
lowing observations : — ■ 

1.  Learn  the  principles  of  language,  or  of  synonymy,  and  endeavor  to  apply 
them  judiciously.  For  example :  Some  words  are  more  comprehensive  or  less 
specific  than  others.  Every  river  is  a  stream,  but  not  every  stream  is  a  river. 
Some  words  are  active,  and  others  are  passive.  Force  affects,  strength  sustains ; 
fickle  men  waver,  pr'icQS  fl,ioduate ;  reasonable  men  exorcise  reason,  rational  men 
have  reason.  Some  words  are  positive,  and  others  are  negative.  A  fault  is 
something  positively  bad ;  a  defect  is  a  mere  want  of  something  needed.  Some 
words  differ  in  degrea;  as,  damp,  moist,  wet;  delicacy,  dainty.  Some  words 
relate  more  directly  to  nature ;  others,  to  art.  Gentleness  may  be  the  gift  of 
nature,  but  iameness  is  the  result  of  art.  Some  words  are  rather  spiritual  or 
heavenly;  others,  worldly  or  material :  soul,  mind;  spirit,  vigor;  delightful,  'Vi- 
cious. Some  words  rather  have  reference  to  something  inward  ;  and  others,  to 
something  outward ;  as,  dignity,  decorum.  Some  words  are  the  names  of  things 
themselves;  others  are  but  the  names  of  the  sfgns  of  things;  as,  idea,  ward. 

2.  Consider  what  distinctions  the  differences  in  things  require ;  look  through 
your  knowledge,  look  into  the  world  around  you — into  other  men's  knowledge 
and  practice,  and  into  the  relations  of  things,  and  discriminate  accordingly.  For 
example :  Genius  is  rather  inward,  creative,  and  angelic ;  talent,  outward,  prac- 
tical, and  worldly.  Genius  disdains  and  defies  imitation  ;  talent  is  often  the  re- 
sult of  imitation  in  respect  to  every  thing  that  may  contribute  to   the  desired 


256  GENERAL    OBScIRVATIONS. 

excellence.  Genius  has  quick  and  strong  sympathies,  and  is  sometimes  given  to 
revery  and  vision ;  talent  is  cool  and  wise,  seldom  losing  sight  of  "  common 
sense."  GenvMs  is  born  for  a  particular  pursuit,  in  which  it  surpasses ;  talent  is 
versatile,  and  may  make  a  respectable  figure  at  almost  any  thing.  To  genius 
are  due  about  all  the  achievements  that  distinguish  enlightened  from  savage  life  ; 
iaitnt  has  merely  preserved,  polished,  and  enjoyed  the  productions  of  genius,  but 
created  nothing.  Men  of  talent  are  but  time-servers :  they  usually  carry  on  the 
world,  and  get  the  best  of  it  while  they  are  in  it ;  but  tlieir  glory  generally  ends 
at  the  grave.  Men  of  genius  sometimes  starve  for  want  of  bread;  though  they 
are  generally  appreciated  and  honored  by  posterity. 

Discriminate  words  as  you  find  them  used  in  sentences  written  by  good 
authors.  If  I  sa,y,  "  When  the  disciples  saw  the  Savior  arisen  on  the  morning 
of  the  resurrection,  they  gazed  upon  him  with  astonishment  and  rapture;"  "  I 
have  often  seen  impudent  fellows  station  themselves  at  the  doors  of  churches, 
and  i-tore  at  the  women;"  you  can  easily  see  the  difference  between  gaze  and 
sta7'e. 

Every  word  has  a  peculiar  set  of  associations  belonging  to  it ;  and  in  the 
proper  discrimination  of  words  with  reference  to  their  secondary  ideas,  lie  chiefly 
the  precision  and  elegance  of  language. 

We  should  rather  choose  the  words  and  expressions  already  in  common  use^ 
and  employ  them  in  their  ordinary  signification,  thaa  coin  new  words  or  ex- 
pressions, or  use  old  ones  in  a  peculiar  sense  ;  for,  if  we  were  at  liberty  in  these 
respects,  soon  every  man's  writings  would  need  a  glossary.  Ex, — "  We  may 
recognize  this  construction  by  the  name  of  the  accusative  and  infinitive  con- 
tracted objective  accessory." — Mulligan. 

Another  fault  is  ambiguity,  which  arises  chiefly  from  the  several  different 
meanings  which  some  words  have,  from  the  position  of  words,  and  from  the 
omission  of  words.  '•  He  is  mady  "  The  governor  had  several  fast  friends  in 
the  Territory." — Bwnefs  Northwest  T-irriiory.  What  sort  of  friends  does  ho 
mean?  '^Jirrn  friends,"  I  suppose.  "The  rising  tomb  a  lofty  column  bore." 
Which  bore  the  other  ?  "While  the  sun  was  gently  sinking  below  the  horizon 
in  the  west,  with  much  beauty,  the  bright  moon  rose  serenely  above  it  in 
the  east." 

Rhymes,  poetical  words,  and  poetic  structure  should  be  avoided  in  prose: — 

Ex. — "  He  pulled  out  his  purse  to  Teimburse  the  unfortunate  man."  "  The 
mom  was  cloudy  and  darksome,  but  the  eve  was  serenely  beautiful." 

"  The  gallant  warrior  starts  from  soft  repose,  from  golden  visions  dnd  volup- 
tuous ease ;  where,  in  the  dulcet  piping  time  of  peace,  he  sought  sweet  solace 
after  all  his  toils.  No  more  in  beauty's  siren  lap  reoUned,  he  weaves  fair  gar- 
lands for  his  lady's  brows;  no  more  entwines  with  flowers  his  shining  sword, 
nor  through  the  livelong  lazy  summer's  day  chants  forth  his  love-sick  soul  in 
madrigals.  To  manhood  roused,  he  spurns  the  amorous  flute ;  dofi's  from  hia 
brawny  back  the  robes  of  peace,  and  clothes  his  pampered  hmbs  in  panoply  of 
steeL  O'er  liis  dark  brow  where  late  the  myrtle  waved,  where  wanton  roses 
breathed  enervate  love,  he  rears  the  beaming  casque  and  nodding  plume; 
grasps  the  bright  shield  and  shakes  the  ponderous  lauce ;  or  mounts,  with  eager 
pride,  his  flery  steed,  and  burns  for  deeds  of  glorious  chivAlvy.^^- Irving :  KnickeT' 
backer.  Possibly,  the  foregoing  was  meant  in  ridicule  of  the  turgid  or  bombastic 
style.  The  golden-mouthed  author,  however,  not  unfrequently  transgresses,  by 
passing  into  poetic  grounds. 

In  accordance  with  Dr.  Blair's  system  of  rhetoric,  we  may  briefly  sum  up  the 
most  important  qualities  of  style,  in  the  six  following  terms  :  purity,  propriety, 
and  />rt!cmon,  chiefly  in  regard  to  words  and  phrases;  and  perspicuity,  unity, 
and  strength,  in  regard  to  sentences.  He  who  writes  with  purity,  avoids  all 
phraseology  that  is  foreign,  uncouth,  or  ill-derived ;  he  who  writes  with  propr/Aity, 


OENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  357 

eelocts  the  most  appropiiate,  the  very  b^t  expressions,  and  generally  displays 
sound  judgment  and  good  taste ,  he  who  writes  with  precision,  is  careful  to 
state  exactly  what  he  means — all  that  he  means  or  that  is  necessary,  and  nothing 
more;  he  who  writes  with  perspicuity^  aims  to  present  his  meaning  so  clearly 
and  obviously  that  no  one  can  fail  to  understand  him  at  once :  he  who  observes 
unity,  follows  carefully  the  most  agreeable  order  of  nature,  and  does  not  jumble 
together  incongruous  things,  nor  throw  out  his  thoughts  in  a  confused  or  chaotic 
mass ;  and  he  who  writes  with  strength,  so  disposes  or  marshals  all  the  parts  of 
each  sentence,  and  all  the  parts  of  the  discourse,  as  to  make  the  strongest  im- 
pression. A  person's  style,  according  as  it  is  influenced  by  taste  and  imagina- 
tion, may  be  dry,  plaiUy  neat,  elegant,  ornamental,  florid,  or  turgid  The  most 
common  faulty  style  is  that  which  may  be  described  as  being  stiff,  cramped, 
labored,  heavy,  and  tiresome;  its  opposite  is  the  easy,  flowing,  graceful, 
sprightly,  and  interesting  style.  One  of  the  greatest  beauties  of  style,  one  too 
little  regarded,  is  simplicity  or  naturalness ;  that  easy,  unaffected,  earnest,  and 
highly  impressive  language  which  indicates  a  total  ignorance,  or  rather,  inno- 
cence, of  all  the  trickery  of  art.  It  seems  to  consist  of  tlie  pure  promptings  of 
nature ;  though,  in  most  instances,  it  is  not  so  much  a  natural  gift  as  it  is  the 
perfection  of  art. 

Dr.  Campbell  gives  the  following  excellent  laws  of  language,  which  should 
bo  ever  kept  in  mind,  and  which  will  best  exemplify  themselves  in  the  course 
of  the  student's  life  and  experience: — 

1.  When  the  usage  is  divided  as  to  any  particular  words  or  phrases,  and 
when  one  of  the  expressions  is  susceptible  of  different  meanings,  while  the 
other  admits  of  only  one  signification,  the  expression  which  is  strictly  univ- 
ocal  should  be  preferred. 

2.  In  doubtful  cases,  analogy  should  be  regarded. 

3.  When  expressions  are  in  other  respects  equal,  that  should  be  pre- 
ferred which  is  most  agreeable  to  the  ear. 

4.  When  none  of  the  preceding  rules  takes  place,  regard  should  be  had 
to  simplicity. 

a.  All  words  and  phrases,  particularly  harsh  and  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary, should  be  dismissed. 

h.  When  the  etymology  plainly  points  to  a  different  signification  from 
what  the  word  bears,  propriety  and  simplicity  require  its  dismission. 

c.  When  words  become  obsolete,  or  are  never  used  but  in  particular 
phrases,  they  should  be  repudiated,  as  they  give  the  style  an  air  of  vulgar- 
ity and  cant,  when  this  general  disuse  renders  them  obscure. 

d.  All  words  and  phrases  which,  analyzed  grammatically,  include  a  sole- 
cism, should  be  dismissed. 

e.  All  expressions  which,  according  to  the  established  rules  of  language, 
either  have  no  meaning,  or  involve  a  contradiction,  or,  according  to  the 
fair  construction  of  the  words,  convey  a  meaning  different  from  the  inten- 
tion of  the  speaker,  should  be  dismissed. 


Note. — The  remainder  of  the  book,  except  the  article  on  Analy- 
sis, might  be  termed  Part  Third.  In  the  foregoing  pages,  we  have 
shown  what  the  most  ordinary  language  must  have  ;  in  most  of  the 
following  pages,  we  shall  endeavor  to  show  how  language  acquires 
force  and  beauty. 


268  RHETORICAL    DEVICES. EQUIVALENT    EXPRESSIONS. 

13.  RHETORICAL  DEVICES. 

EQUIVALENT  EXPRESSIONS. 

An  expression  is  equivalent  to  another,  when  it  conveys  the  same 
meaning  in  different  words. 

Language  often  affords  us  the  choice  of  either  a  single  word,  a 
phrase,  or  an  entire  clause. 

Ex. — "  Pleasant  scene3"=Scenes  of  pleasure=^CGne9  that  please.  Now=at  the 
present  time.  Sharp-ed.o:ed=havmor  a  sharp  edge.  "  The  book,  containing  the 
stnry^  is  in  my  library"=The  book  which  contains  the  story^  is  in  my  library.  "  We 
expected  him  to  make  a  «peec^"=We  expected  that  he  would  make  a  speech.  *'  The 
river  was  so  deep  as  to  be  impassahle — that  it  was  impassable — that  it  could  not  be 
passed  over.'''' 

Transitive  verbs  may  be  used  in  either  voice. 

Ex. — "Cain  kitted  Abel"==Abel  was  killed  by  Cain. 

We  may  sometimes  express  an  assertion  modestly  by  substituting 
a  denial  of  the  opposite. 

Ex. — "I  remember  your  promise"=I  have  not  forgotten  your  promise.  "  He  ia 
wise;"  "He  is  not  ignorant ;"  "He  is  no  fool."  "She  is  handsome;"  "She  is 
not  homely." 

It  or  there  is  often  used  to  introduce  a  sentence  more  elegantly. 

Ex. — ^^  It  is  not  probable  that  those  who  are  vicious  in  youth,  will  become  vir- 
tuous in  old  age."  '■'■  There  never  was  a  time  when  labor  was  more  in  demand  or 
better  rewarded." 

Frequently,  we  may  use  an  entirely  different  word,  or  mode  of 
expression,  with  equal  or  even  greater  propriety. 

Ex. — "The  gentleman  does  not  possess  the  necessary  qualiflcation8"=He  is 
unfit  for  the  business.  "She  died;"  " God  released  her  from  her  pain."  "The 
one  was  a  horse,  namsd  Pound-cake  /  the  other,  a  mule  that  wagged  his  long  ears  to 
the  call  of  ^John'.''''  "  My  opponent  does  perhaps  not  see  that  he  has  contradicted 
himself;"  "  The  honorable  beiiator  does  not  seem  to  know  that  he  is  caught  tight 
and  fast  in  the  fixed  fact  of  a  killing  contradiction." 

The  shortest  and  most  familiar  expressions  are  generally  the  best. 
The  longer  or  more  unusual  ones  are  more  ceremonious,  and,  to  be 
appropriate,  should  imply  greater  importance  of  matter,  or  greater 
accuracy,  clearness,  or  elegance. 

The  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  form,  for  another,  is  called 
enal'lage. 

Ex.—"  The  swallow  sings  sweet  from  her  nest  in  the  ^dlV—Dlmond.  So,  we 
ased  for  /. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

"  Forth  rushed  with  whirlwind  sound 
The  chariot  of  paternal  Db\ty:'— Milton. 
"  Up  rose  the  sun,  and  up  rose  'E.m\YiB:'—Chamer. 
••  Silver  and  gold  have  I  uone." — Bible. 

"  We  set  him  loose,  and  away  he  run." — Swift's  Gulliveo-'s  Travels. 
How  spirited  does  tl)e  arran;:eineut  of  the  words  make  the  foregoing  sentences. 


RHETORICAL    DEVICES. ARRANGEMENT.  259 

Arrangement  may  be  considered  with  reference  to  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses. 

The  place  most  important  in  a  sentence,  is  usually  its  beginning ; 
the  next  most  important  is  the  ending. 

Hence  the  subject,  which  is  the  germ  or  source  of  the  whole 
sentence,  naturally  takes  the  first  place  ;  and,  in  some  languages,  the 
verb  is  generally  reserved  for  the  end. 

Ex. — "^  maintained  a  large  army  at  his  own  expense."  "Home  was  an  ocean 
of  flame." — Oroli/.    "  Him  the  Almighty  hurled.'''' — MiUan. 

An  adjective,  an  adverb,  a  verb,  or  a  substantive,  may  sometimes 
usurp  tho  place  of  the  subject,  or  be  brought  out  at  the  close  of  the 
sentence;  especially  when  it  sets  forth  what  is  most  striking,  or 
what  is  uppermost  in  the  speaker's  mind. 

'Ex.—^^Zouder  and  lauder  the  deep  thunder  rolled,  as  through  the  myriad  halls 
of  some  vast  temple  in  the  sky ;  fiercer  and  brighter  became  the  lightning ;  more 
and  more  heavily  the  rain  poured  down.'''' — Dickens.  What  a  sentence  !  "  Then 
never  saw  I  charity  before."  "  Then  rushed  the  steed  to  battle  driven."  "  The 
goods  he  sent  away,  and  the  money  he  put  into  his  pocket."  "  Strait  is  the  gate, 
and  narrow  is  the  way,  that  lead  to  life  eternaV  '■^Long  was  the  way  and  dreary. 
— Milton.  By  placing  long  at  the  beginning,  and  dreary  at  the  end,  how  admirably 
has  Milton  expressed  what  must  have  been  most  striking  and  disheartening  to 
Satan,  who  was  about  to  undertake  his  journey  over  Chaos. 

Frequently,  an  adjunct,  a  participial  phrase,  or  an  infinitive  phrase, 
may  be  transposed. 

Ex. — ^'■In  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury,  the  Koman  State  evidently  de- 
clined" ==TheKoman  State,  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury.,  evidently  declined 
=The  Koman  State  evidently  declined  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury. 

Frequently,  the  clauses  may  change  places,  or  one  be  placed 
within  another. 

Ex.— "i)^  you  desire  it,  I  will  accompany  you ;"  "I  will  accompany  you,  if  you 
desire  it;''  " I  will,  if  you  desire  it,  accompany  you." 

Some  regard  should  he  paid  to  the  importance  and  the  natural 
order  of  things. 

Ex.—  "  The  cloud-capt  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces, 

The  solemn  temples,  the  great  globe  itself, 
Yea,  all  that  it  inherit,  shall  dissolve  ; 
And,  like  the  baseless  fabric  of  a  vision, 
Leave  not  a  rack  hohindL." — Shakespeare. 

But  the  mind  sometimes  disregards  the  natural  order  of  time  or 
place,  and  puts  forth  first  what  is  first  or  most  thought  of. 

Ex.—"  Where  I  was  Ired  and  lorn.'''— Shakespeare. 

A  sentence  so  constructed  that  the  meaning  is  suspended  till  the 
close,  is  called  a  period. 

Ex.—"  When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with  another 
*  *  *  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinion  of  mankind  requires,  that  they  should 
declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  separation." — Jefferson. 

The  transposition  of  words,  grammarians  call  hyper'haton. 

Ex.—"  From  crag  to  cra§,  the  rattling  peaks  among,  leaps  the  live  thunder."— 
Byron.  »2 


260  RHETORICAL    DEVICES. ELLIPSIS. PLEONASM. 

ELLIPSIS,  OR  OMISSION  OF  WORDS. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  and  force,  words  not  necessary  to  convey 
the  meaning  are  sometimes  omitted. 

Ex.— "A  horse !  a  horse  1  my  kingdom  for  a  horse !"  is  much  more  forcible 
than,  Fetch  me  a  horse  !  fetch  me  a  horse !  I  would  now  give  my  kingdom  for  a 
horse.  "A  boy  and  [a]  girl."  "  The  old  bridge  and  the  new  [&ntZ<76]."  "Sweet 
[is]  the  pleasure,  rich  [is]  the  treasure." — Dryden. 

In  the  following  stanza,  the  omission  of  which  is  quite  elegant : — 

"  I  hear  a  voice — thou  canst  not  hear, 

Which  says  I  must  not  stay ; 

I  see  a  hand — thou  canst  not  see. 

Which  beckons  me  away." 

Omitted  words  are  such  as  have  already  been  mentioned,  or  else 
such  as  may  be  readily  inferred  from  the  words  used. 

Suppose  you  should  see  merely  a  horse's  head  projecting  from  behind  a  stable, 
would  you  not,  from  your  knowledge,  know  what  animal  is  there  even  without 
seeing  him?     The  same  principle  allows  ellipsis,  or  the  omission  of  words. 

In  analyzing  arid  parsing,  only  such  words  should  be  supplied 

as  are  necessary  to  complete  the  construction. 

PLEONASM,  OR  REPETITION  OF  WORDS. 

Sometimes  more  words  may  be  used  than  are  absolutely  necessary. 
Ex.—"  I  saw  it  with  my  own  eyesy    "  The  vessel  sailed  for  Cuba,  and  not  for 
N&w  York.''''    "  Our  boat  sunk  down  to  the  very  bottom." 
"  One  of  the  few,  the  immortal  names, 
That  were  not  born  to  die." — HallecJc. 

The  same  word  or  the  same  construction  may  sometimes  be 
repeated. 

"  Strike — till  the  last  arm  foe  expires ! 
Strike — for  your  altars  and  your  fires ! 
Strike — for  the  green  graves  of  your  sires ! 

God,  and  your  native  land !" — Ealleclc. 
"  No  employment  for  industry— no  demand  for  labor— no  sale  of  the  produce  of 
the  farm— no  sound  of  the  hammer,  but  that  of  the  auctioneer  knocking  down 
property  V'— Benton.   How  well  here  does  no  indicate  the  utter  prostration  of  busi- 
ness and  prosperity. 

"  The  endless  sands  yield  nothing  but  small  stunted  shrubs— even  these  fail 
after  the  first  two  or  three  days :  and  from  that  time  you  pass  over  broad  plains — 
vou  pass  over  newly  reared  hills- you  pass  through  valleys  that  the  storm  of  the 
last  week  has  dug— and  the  hills  and  the  valleys  are  sand,  sand,  still  sand,  and 
only  sand,  and  sand,  and  sand  again."— ^o^Ae;^ .-  Grossing  the  Desert.    How  well 
here  does  repetition  indicate  the  todiousness  and  weariness  felt  by  the  traveler. 
"  Ifowbeit,  the  door  I  opened,  or  so  I  dreamed  ; 
Which  slowly,  slowly  gaped."— i%06?'«  Hmmted  House. 
Here  slowly,  repeated,  very  ingeniously  intimates  the  fear  and  hesitation  of  the 
opener. 

"Mourn,  hOT)le98  Caledonia,  mourn."    "Fal'n,  fal'n,  fal'n,  fal'n,  fal'n  from  his 
high  estate,  and  weltering  in  his  blood."    "  Our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred 
honors."     "  There  is  but  one,  one  Mary  in  the  world  for  me." 
"  She  winks,  and  giggles,  and  simpers. 
And  simpers,  jmd  giggles,  and  wmks ; 
And  though  she  talks  but  little. 
'Tia  a  groat  deal  more  than  sne  thinks." — Stark, 


RHETORICAL    DEVICES. EXERCISES.  261 

"Explain  upon  a  thing  till  all  men  doubt  it; 

And  write  about  it,  and  about  it." — Fbpe'a  Dunciad. 
"  By  foreign  bands  tby  dying  eyes  were  closed  ; 

By  foreign  hands  thy  decent  limbs  composed  ; 

By  foreign  hands  thy  humble  grave  adorned  ; 

By  strangers  honored,  and  by  strangers  mourned." — Pope. 
"Must  I  then  leave  you  ?    Must  I  needs  forego 
^  So  good,  so  noble,  and  so  true  a  master  ? 

The  king  shall  have  my  service,  but  my  prayers 

For  ever  and  for  ever  shall  be  yours." — Shakespeare. 

Authors  sometimes  consider  it  a  beauty  to  begin  two  or  more 
words  of  the  same  line,  or  in  the  same  construction,  with  the  same 
letter.     This  is  called  alliteration. 

"  In  friendship  false,  implacable  in  hate, 

Eesolved  to  ruin  or  to  rule  the  state." — Dryden, 
"  Fields  forever  fresh,  and  groves  forever  green.'''' 
"  Round  rugged  rocks,  rude  ragged  rascals  ran.'''' 
"  Alike  for  feast  and  fight  prepared, 
•       Battle  and  banquet  both  they  shared." —  W.  Scott. 


EXERCISES. 

Change  the  voice : — 

John  fed  the  horse.  Cornwallis  was  defeated  by  Washington.  He  made 
it.       His  friends  will  recommend  him.       I  offered  him  a  situation. 

Change  the  participial  and  tlie  infinitive  phrases  into  clauses  : — 

The  teacher  being  in  sight,  all  the  boys  ran  to  their  books.  He  came  to 
examine  the  matter  himself.  His  views  are  so  extravagant  as  to  be  ridiculous. 
Having  paid  his  clerk,  he  dismissed  him. 

Use  rr : — 

To  devise  any  apology  for  such  conduct,  is  utterly  impossible. 

Use  THERE  : — 

Not  one  man  was  in  the  country,  unwilling  to  defend  it.     Thorns  are  to  rosea. 

CJiange  into  compound  adjectives  : — 

My  boots  with  red  tops.  Violets  of  sweet  scent  fringed  the  bank.  The 
live-oaks  of  the  South,  that  are  curtained  with  moss. 

Change  the  words,  or  the  mode  of  expression  : — 

Every  one  who  hunts  after  pleasure,  or  fame,  or  fortune,  is  still  restless  and 
uneasy  till  he  has  hunted  down  his  game. — Swift.  I  bore  the  diminution  of 
my  riches  without  any  outrages  of  sorrow,  or  pusillanimity  of  dejection. — John- 
son. Suspenders  were  abandoned  with  the  first  intimation  of  the  present 
summer  solstice. —  Willis. 

Change  the  arrangement,  and  occasionally  the  mode  of  expression  : — 

A  person  gains  more  by  obliging  his  inferior,  than  by  disobliging  hire.  The 
murmurs  of  the  people  were  loud,  as  their  sufferings  increased.  Various,  sin- 
cere, and  constant  are  the  eflforts  of  men,  to  produce  that  happiness  which  the 
mind  requires.  The  necessary  ingredients  of  friendship  are  confidenco  and 
benevolence.  If  beasts  could  talk,  they  might  often  tell  us  a  cruel  story.  For 
many  a  returning  autumn,  a  lone  Indian  was  seen  standing  at  the  consecrated 
spot  we  have  mentioned ;  but,  just  thirty  years  after  the  death  of  Soonseetah,  he 
was  noticed  for  the  last  time. 

Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade. 

Where  heaves  the  turf  with  many  a  mouldering  heap. 
Each  in  his  narrow  cell  forever  laid. 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sle^p.—Gh-ay. 


262  RHETORICAL    FIGURES. 

Change  to  prose : — 

For  see,  ah  I  see,  while  yet  her  ways, 

With  doubtful  steps,  I  tread, 
A  hostile  world  its  terrors  raise, 

Its  snares  delusive  spread. — Merrick. 
Supply  all  the  omittei  words : — 

The  large  and  the  little  man  were  great  friends.  Stay  longer.  Arm,  sol- 
diers 1  Vain — vain — give  o'er.  How  now,  Tubal,  what  news  from  Genoa? 
A  diamond  gone,  cost  me  three  thousand  ducats  in  Frankfort !  The  combat 
deepens. — On,  ye  brave.  But  gone  was  every  Indian  we  had  seen.  The 
more,  the  better.  Heaven  hides  from  brutes  what  men,  from  men  what  spirits, 
know.  He  offered  a  reward  to  whoever  could  solve  the  problem.  He  has 
behaved  as  well  as  you.  He  has  behaved  better  than  you.  The  honor,  and 
not  the  profits,  is  what  he  values  most.  Quick  at  meals,  quick  at  work.  Better 
long  something,  than  soon  nothing.       Soon  ripe,  soon  rotten. 

"When  pain  and  sorrow  wring  the  brow, 
A  ministering  angel  thou. — Scott. 

14.    rJIETORICAL  FIGURES. 

The  expressiveness  of  language  may  be  increased  or  extended,  by 
the  judicious  use  of  the  rhetorical  figures.  They  promote  clear- 
ness^ beauty,  brevity ,  and  force. 

Some  Southern  orator  has  thus  extolled  the  moral  influence  of  woman  : — 
"  Woman  wields  the  Archimedean  lever  whose  fulcrum  is  childhood,  whose 
weight  is  the  world,  whose  length  is  all  time,  and  whose  sweep — is  eternity  1" 
'*  Burns  thus  laments  the  vanished  happy  days  of  youth: — 
"  Still  o'er  these  scenes  my  memory  wakes, 
And  fondly  broods  with  miser  care ; 
Time  but  the  impression  deeper  makes. 
As  streams  their  channels  deeper  wear." 
Dryden  speaks  thus  of  the  inventress  of  the  church-organ : — 
"  He  raised  a  mortal  to  the  skies, 
She  drew  an  angel  down." 
That  is,  the  organ,  at  divine  service,  is  as  an  angel  that  has  just  hastened  down 
from  heaven,  to  instruct  and  lead  the  choir  in  praising  God. 

Grattan  closes  his  character  of  Chatham  with  this  sublime  sentence  : — 
"  He  struck  a  blow  in  the  world,  that  resounded  through  the  universe." 
All  these  examples  owe  their  beauty  and  vigor  chiefly  to  the  figures  which  they 
contain.   _ A  perfect  classification  of  the  rhetorical  figures  is  perhaps  impossible; 
for  sometimes  several  set  the  same  expression  aglow  at  once.    Some  rhetoricians 

Eretend  to  have  seen  more  than  250  different  ones ;  the  following  classification, 
owever,  will  about  exhaust  the  subject. 


1.  A  §iinilc  is  an  express  comparison. 

Ex. — "The  music  of  Carryl  was,  like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are  past^  sweet 
and  mournful  to  the  SiOXjXy—Ossian.  "The  child  reclined  on  its  mother's  bosom 
(M  soTM  infant  blossom  on  its  parent  stem.'''' — Mrs.  Sigourney.  "  He  [the  steed] 
looked  as  if  the  speed  of  thought  were  in  his  limbs." — Byron.  "  Too  much  gov- 
ernment may  be  a  greater  evil  than  no  government.  77te  sheep  are  happier  among 
themselves  titan  under  the  care  of  the  wolves.^'' — Jefferson.  Sometimes  we  find  such 
condensed  similes  as  this :  "A  fal^e  friend  and  a  shadow  attend  only  while  the 
8im  shines." 


RHETORICAL    FIGURES.  263 

2.  A  metaphor  is  an  implied  comparison.  It  is  a  word  or 
an  expression  applied  from  one  object  or  attribute  to  another,  on 
account  of  some  resemblance.    It  sometimes  comprises  several  words. 

Ex. — "  Life  is  an  isthmus  between  two  eternities."  "  Her  disdain  stung  him 
to  the  heart,"  "  Bonaparte  called  burning  Moscow  an  ocean  of  flame."  "  TJhe 
morning  of  life."  ''  The  storms  of  life."  "  Some  mute,  inglorious  Milton  herp  may 
rest." — Gray.  "  Man  !  thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear." — Byron.  "  You 
are  ahvuy^  putting  your  nose  into  my  affairs."  "  A  heart  I  a  cushion  to  stick  pins 
into.  For  so  the  world  has  it." — Jerrold.  "  Sin  is  a  hitter  sweet,  and  the  tithe  colors 
of  the  serpent  by  no  means  m/ihe  amends  for  the  poison  of  his  sting.'''' — South. 

3.  An  allegory  is  a  fictitious  discourse  on  one  thing,  sug'gestive 
of  a  train  of  thoughts,  usually  instructive,  on  another.  It  has  been 
called  continued  metaphor. 

Ex. — "  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  [the  Jewish  nation]  out  of  Egypt :  thou  hast 
cast  out  the  heathen,  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst 
cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  laud.  The  hills  were  covered  with  the 
shadow  of  it,  and  tlie  bouglis  tliereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars." — Bible.  See 
Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Addison's  Vision  of  Mirza,  Johnson's  Journey  of  a 
Day,  iTonteneile's  Empire  of  Poetry,  Poe's  Haunted  Palace,  Milton's  Sin  and  Death. 

The  allegory  includes  parables  and  fables.  Similes,  metaphors,  and  allegories, 
are  all  founded  on  resemblaiice ;  but  some  allegories  imply  personification.  Re- 
semblance may  be  either  in  the  appearance  of  objects,  or  in  their  relations  or 
effects.  The  latter  is  commonly  called  analogy.  "  Far  through  the  rosy  deptlis  /" 
i.  e.,  sunset  sky.  Appearance.  " Have  you  a  A;e2/ to  this  arithmetic ?"  Anal- 
ogy. 

4.  Persoiiificatiou  represents  as  persons,  or  as  rational  or 

living  beings,  objects  that  are  not  such  in  reality. 

Ex. — "  How  sweet  the  Moonlight  sleeps  upon  this  bank  !"  —  Shahespeare. 
"Cheered  with  the  grateful  smell,  old  Ocean  smiles." — MUton.  "There  Honor 
comes  a  pilgrim  gray." — Collins.  "  Greece  cries  to  us  from  the  convulsed  lips  of  her 
poisoned  Demosthenes  ;  and  Rome  pleads  with  us  in  the  mute  persuasion  of  her 
mangled  Tally." — Eoerett.  "  How  does  God  reveal  himself  in  nature?  She  an- 
swers thee  with  loud  voices,  and  a  thousand  tongues  :  'God  is  love.'  " — Sherloclc. 

Speino. — "  And  buds  that  yet  the  blasts  of  winter  fear. 

Stand  at  the  door  of  life,  and  ask  to  clothe  the  year." — Dryden. 

The  slight  personification  which  merely  represents  a  noun  naturally  neuter  as 
masculine  or  feminine,  is  sometimes  called  syllepsis.  "  The  ship  was  delayed  on 
her  voyage." 

Personification  is  probably  the  noblest,  the  most  creative,  of  all  the  figures  ; 
being  the  very  soul  of  poetry.  It  is  closely  allied  to  metaphor,  and  sometimes  it 
is  based  on  metonymy  or  synecdoche. 

5.  A  metoii'ymy  is  the  proper  word  or  expression  for  one  thing, 
applied  to  another,  different  in  kind,  but  so  related  that  the  mind 
readily  perceives  what  is  meant.  It  is  founded  on  the  relations  of 
cause,  effect,  contiguity  in  place,  and  contiguity  in  time.  The  cause, 
the  effect,  and  the  circumstances;  the  container,  and  the  thing  con- 
tained ;  the  sign,  and  the  thing  signified ;  the  whole  and  its  parts, — 
are  naturally  associated  in  the  memory,  and  readily  suggest  one 
another. 


264  RHETORICAL     FIGURES.  . 

Ex. — "They  have  Moses  and  the  prophets  •'^  i.  e.,  their  writings.  " I  have  read 
Homer  and  VirgiV  "  The  women  antt  children  were  put  to  the  sword  f  i.  e.,  to 
death.  "  The  husbandman  has  lost  his  sweat ;"  i.  e.,  the  reward  of  his  labor.  ^'-Qray 
hmrs  should  be  respected ;"  i.  e.,  old  age.  "  He  was  the  sigh  of  her  secret  soul ;" 
i.  e.,  the  youth  for  whom  she  sighed  in  secret.  "  We  drank  but  one  bottle.'''' 
'■'■Pennsylvania  passed  certain  resolutions,"  "  He  assumed  the  sceptre  ;''''  i.  e.,  the 
regal  authority.  Sign  for  thing  signitied.  We  often  use  this  figure  to  avoid  dis- 
agreeable cir3amlocution.  When  a  grammarian  says,  "  The  predicate  is  that  which 
is  affirmed  of  the  subject,"  he  means,  "  The  predicate  denotes  that  which  is  affirm- 
ed of  what  the  subject  denotes." 

'■'-  My  adventurous  song."  Attribute  transferred  from  one  object  to  an  accompany- 
ing object.  '■'•Drowsy  night ;  musing  midnight ;  jovial  wine  ;  giddy  heigiits  ;  the 
fearful^  dizzy  brink  ;  bleating  mountains."  "  The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his 
weary  way."  "  You  have  a  very  impudent  mule,"  said  a  young  man  to  another 
who  had  just  rode  between  him  and  a  young  lady. 

6.  A  syiiec'doclie  is  a  term  or  an  expression  applied  to  more  or 
less  than  it  strictly  denotes.  Some  grammarians  say,  "  Synecdoche 
is  the  naming  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  of  the  whole  for  a  part." 

Ex. — "  Give  us  our  daily  bread j''^  i.  e.,  food.  "  We  bought  a  hundred  head  of 
sheep."  "  The  same  day  were  added  unto  them  three  thousand  souls.''''  Observe 
that  the  preaching  was  to  save  souls,  and  hence  the  selection  of  this  part  for  the 
whole.  "  I  am  glad  we  are  under  roof^  "  Stay  thy  avenging  steel  f  i.  e.,  sword. 
"  Here  lies  buried  William  e/tme*;"  i.  e.,  the  body.  "The  Assyrian  came  down 
like  the  wolf  on  the  fold."  "  So  thought  the  countries  of  Demosthenes  and  the 
Spartan,  yet  Leonidas  is  trampled  by  the  timid  slave."  "  Youth  and  beauty  shall 
be  laid  in  dust."  The  character,  qualitv,  or  attribute  of  a  person  is  of  course  a 
part  of  him.  "  To  his  Excellency  the  Governor."  "  'Crate'rus,'  said  Alexander, 
'  loves  the  king  ;  but  Hephsestion  loves  Alexander.'  "  "  He  remained  silent,  and 
thus  wisely  kept  the/oo^  within."  "  Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain  ;'* 
i.  e.,  a  large  number.  "  The  thirsty  Texan  pointed  his  finger  down  his  open  mouth, 
and  said  to  the  Mexican  woman,  '  E't,o  Grande !  Eio  Grande  /'  " 

Metonym.y  and  synecdoche  are  founded,  not  on  resemblance;,  but  on  relation ; 
and  they  sometimes  approach  each  other  so  nearly  as  not  to  be  readily  distin- 
guished. They  enable  the  speaker  to  be  more  definite,  by  confining  the  attention 
to  that  only  which  is  most  obvious  or  intelligible,  or  to  that  which  necessarily  im- 
plies the  rest;  they  enable  him  to  be  more  impressive,  by  drawing  the  attention 
especially  to  that  on  which  the  fact  or  action  immediately  depends ;  and  fre- 
quently they  enable  him  to  avoid  circumlocution. 

Ex. — "  He  addressed  the  CAair,"  is  more  definite  than,  "  He  addressed  the 
President ;"  for  it  must  mean,  "  He  addressed  the  President  in  his  offic'ial  capacity P 
"  We  descried  a  sad"'  [a  ship] ;  but,  "  Our  keels  [ships]  ploughed"  the  deep  ;"  be- 
cause the  former  accords  better  with  seeing;  and  the  latter,  with  ploughing. 
"  The  fruit  of  th&t  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste,"  is  a  very  artful  expression. 
Eve  had  an  unconquerable  curiosity  to  taste  the  fruit  which  was  forbidden  under 
tlie  penalty  of  death. 

■y.  .Aiitith'oKis  sets  different  objects  or  attributes  in  contrast. 

Ex. — "  Sink  ot  swim);  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand  and  heart  to 
this  vote."—  Webster.  "  Though  deep,  yet  clear.'^'  "At  his  touch,  crowns  crumbled, 
beggars  reigned,  systems  vanished."— PAi^^^ps.  "As  when  a  husband  or  a  lap- 
dog  dies." — Po^e.  "  The  notions  of  Dryden  were  formed  by  comprehensive  specu- 
lation; those  ot  Pope,  by  minute  observation.  Dryden  is  read  with  frequent  as- 
tonishment ;  Pope,  with  perpetual  delight."— /oATWon..  See  the  first  two  stanzaa 
of  Halleok's  Bozzaris. 

"  To-day  man's  dressed  in  gold  and  silver  bright. 
Wrapped  in  a  shroud  before  to-morrow  night.'^ 

"  They  heard  the  clarion's  iron  clang. 
The  breeze  which  through  the  roses  sang."— CroZ^. 


RHETORICAL   FIGURES.  265 

8.  Irony  sneeringly  means  tlie  reverse  of  what  the  words  liter- 
ally denote.  It  is  usually  mockery  uttered  for  the  sake  of  ridicule 
or  sarcasm.  It  has  the  finest  effect  when  the  speaker  seems  to  fall 
into  the  real  sentiments  of  those  whom  he  attacks. 

Ex. — To  call  a  fool  a  Solomon,  or  to  praise  what  we  mean  to  disparage,  is  irony. 
*'  Have  not  the  Indians  been  kindly  and  justly  treated?  Have  not  the  temporal 
things,  the  vain  baubles  and  filthy  lucre  of  this  world,  which  were  too  apt  to  en- 
gage their  worldly  and  selfish  thoughts,  been  benevolently  taken  from  them ;  and 
have  they  not  instead  thereof,  been  taught  to  set  their  afliections  on  things  above?" 
— Irmcg. 

9.  Paralip'sis  pretends  to  conceal  or  omit  what  it  really  ex- 
presses or  suggests. 

Ex. — '■'■I will  not  call  1dm  villain,  because  it  would  be  unparliamentary.  IioiU 
not  call  him  fool,  because  he  happens  to  be  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer." — Grattan. 
"Boys,  you  would  not  throw  stones  at  the  Police, — would  you?" — 0'' Connelly 
thus  putting  into  their  heads  what  he  wants  them  to  do, — inciting  the  mob  to  a  riot. 
"  Mr.  President,  I  shall  enter  on  no  encomium  upon  Massachusetts :  she  needs 
none.  There  she  is, — behold  her  and  judge  for  yourselves.  There  is  her  history, 
— the  world  knows  it  by  heart.  The  past,  at  least,  is  secure.  There  is  Boston, 
and  Concord,  and  Lexington,  and  Bunker  Hill, — and  there  they  will  remain  for 
ever." —  Webster. 

"  Must  I  remember  ?    Why,  she  should  hang  on  him 
As  if  increase  of  appetite  had  grown 
By  what  it  fed  on ;  yet,  within  a  month — 
Let  me  not  think —    Frailty,  thy  name  is  woman." — ShaJcespeare. 

10.  Hyper'bole  greatly  exaggerates  what  is  founded  in  truth. 
To  be  proper,  it  should  imply  strong  emotion  in  the  speaker,  or 
the  apprehension  that  the  hearer  would  not  otherwise  attach  suffi- 
cient importance  to  what  is  said. 

Ex.—"  Brougham  is  a  thunderbolt.^'  "  He  was  the  owner,  of  a  piece  of  land  not 
larger  than  a  £acede?nonian  letter:'  "  That  fellow  is  so  tall  that  he  does  n't  know 
when  his  feet  are  cold." 

"  Some  Curran,  who,  when  thrones  were  crumbled,  and  dynasties  forgotten, 
might  stand  the  landmark  of  his  country's  genius,  rearing  himself  amid  regal 
ruins  and  national  dissolution,  a  mental  pyramid  in  the  solitude  of  tiine,_  beneath 
whose  shade  things  might  moulder,  and  around  whose  summit  eternity  must 
play." — PhiUips. 

"Falstatt;  thou  globe  of  flesh,  spotted  o'er  with  continents  of  sin:'— Shakespeare. 
"  Here  Orpheus  sings ;  trees,  moving  to  the  sound. 
Start  from  their  roots,  and  form  a  shade  axoxmd:'— Pope. 

11.  Climax  means  ladder.  It  is  a  gradual  climbing,  or  rise 
of  thought,  from  things  inferior  to  greater  or  better.  When  re- 
versed, it  is  called  anticlimax. 

Ex. — "  The  stream  of  hterature  has  swollen  into  a  torrent — augmented  into  a 
river— expanded  into  a  sea."— //•smp'.  "  Here  I  stand  for  impeachment  or  trial  1 
I  dare  accusation  !  I  defy  the  honorable  gentleman !  I  defy  the  government  1  I 
defy  their  whole  phalanx'!" — Grattan. 

*"A  Scotch  mist  becomes  a  shower;  and  a  shower,  a  flood;  and  a  flood,  a 
storm;  and  a  storm,  a  tempest;  and  a  tempest,  thunder  and  lightning;  and  thun- 
der and  lightning,  heaven-quake  and  eartbx[uake."— Prof.  Wilson. 

Anticlimax:  "Great  men— such  as  Washington,  Adams.  Jefierson,  Aaron 
Burr,  Stephen  Arnold,  and  the  friend  of  my  worthy  opponent?'— Political  Speech. 
See  Irony. 


26d  '  RHETORICAL    FIGURES. 

12.  Allusion  is  such  a  use  of  some  word  or  words  as  will 
recall  some  interesting  fact,  custom,  writing,  or  saying.  It  is  usually 
founded  on  resemblance  or  contrast. 

Ex. — "  Give  them  Saratoga  in  New  York,  and  we'll  give  them  TorUown  in 
Virginia." — Political  Speech.  "  When  you  go  into  the  museum,  be  Argu«,  but  not 
Briareu3."  "  The  excesses  of  our  youth  are  drafts  upon  our  old  age,  payable  about 
tiiirty  years  after  date." 

"Hands  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  swayed. 
Close  at  my  elbow  stir  their  lemonade." — Holmes. 

A  continued  allusion  or  resemblance  in  style,  is  termed  jmrody. 
There  may,  at  the  same  time,  be  a  contrast  in  sentiment.  A  play 
on  the  sound  or  meanings  of  a  word,  is  termed  a  pun. 

Ex. —    "  'Tis  the  last  rose  of  summer,  left  blooming  alone  ; 

All  its  lovely  companions  are  withered  and  strown ; 

No  flower  of  her  kindred,  no  rosebud  is  nigh, 

To  reflect  back  her  blushes,  or  give  sigh  for  siglu 

I'll  not  leave  thee,  thou  lone  one,  to  pine  on  the  stem ; 

Since  the  lovely  are  sleeping,  go,  sleep  thou  with  them. 

Thus  kindly  I  scatter  thy  leaves  o'er  the  bed 

Where  thy  mates  of  the  garden  lie  scentless  and  dead,"  &c. 
Pakodt  :    "  Tis  the  last  golden  dollar,  left  shining  alone  ; 

All  its  brilliant  companions  are  squandered  and  gone. 

No  coin  of  its  mintnge  reflects  back  its  hue, 

They  went  in  mint-juleps,  and  this  will  go  too  ! 

I'll  not  keep  thee,  thou  lone  one,  too  long  in  suspense  ; 

Thy  brothers  were  melted,  and  melt  thou,  to  pence  ! 

I'll  ask  for  no  quarter,  I'll  spend  and  not  spare, 

Till  my  old  tattered  pocket  hangs  centless  and  bare,"  &c. 
PiTN :      "  Ancient  maiden  lady  anxiously  remarks. 

That  there  must  be  peril  'mong  so  many  sparlcs ;  [fire  ;] 

Koguish-looking  fellow,  turning  to  the  stranger. 

Says  it's  his  opinion  she  is  out  of  danger." — Saxe. 

l:j.  Eu'pheiti3<iisii  is  a  softened  mode  of  speech  for  what  would 
be  offensive  or  disagreeable  if  told  in  downright  plain  language. 
It  is  often  based  on  other  figures,  but  it  is  effected  most  frequently 
by  circumlocution  ;  that  is,  by  a  round-about  mode  of  expression. 

Ex. — '*  You  labor  iinder  a  mistake,"  for,  "  You  lie."  "  He  does  not  keep  very 
exact  accounts ;"  "  He  cheats  when  he  can."  "  She  certainly  displays  as  little 
vanity,  in  regard  to  her  personal  appearance,  as  any  young  lady  I  ever  saw;"  "  She 
is  an  intolerable  slattern."  "  Slaves  are  often  called  sermntsy  "  Sweet  child  1 
lovely  child  !  your  parents  are  no  moreP  Cushi  did  not  say  to  David,  "  Absalom 
M  hilled-^''  but  he  avoided  wounding  his  feelings  as  much  as  possible,  by  saying, 
"  May  all  the  enemies  of  the  king  he  as  that  yowng  man  is.'''' 

1 4.  Interrogation  is  an  animated  mode  of  speech,  by  which 
the  speaker  prefers  to  put  forth,  in  the  form  of  question,  what  he 
neither  doubts,  nor  expects  to  be  answered. 

Ex.—"  But  when  shall  we  be  stronger  ?     Will  it  bo  the  next  week,  or  the  next 
year?    Will  it  be  when  we  are  totally  disarmed,  and  when  a  British  guard  shall  ba 
stationed  HI  every  honse  V    *    *    *    Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  ba 
purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery  V—F.  Henry. 
"  Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  miusiou  call  the  fleeting  breath? 
Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  tlie  silent  dust. 
Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death  V—Gra/y. 


RHETORICAL    FIGURES.  267 

This  fi.^ire  fixes  the  attention  more  stronjrly  on  some  important  point,  than 
a  simple  declaration  would ;  and  sometimes  it  implies  a  defiance  to  the  adver- 
sary or  hearer,  to  deny  if  he  can. 

15.  ExclaTniitioii  is  usually  an  abrupt  or  broken  mode  of 
speech,  designed  to  express  more  strongly  the  emotions  of  the 
speaker. 

Ex. — "  Dr.  Cams.  What  business  could  the  honest  man  have  in  my  room  I" 
for,  "The  honest  man  could  have  no  business  in  my  room." 

"Oh  !  that  I  could  return  once  more  to  peace  and  innocence  I  that  I  hung  an 
infant  on  the  breast !  that  I  were  born  a  beggar— a  peasant  of  the  field  !  I  would 
toil  till  the  sweat  of  blood  dropped  from  my  brow,  to  purchase  the  luxury  of  one 
sound  sleep,  the  rapture  of  a  smgle  tear!" — Schiller. 

"  How  poor,  how  rich,  how  abject,  how  august, 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful  is  man  ! 
Distinguished  link  in  being's  endless  chain  I 
Midway  from  nothing  to  the  Deity ! 
A  beam  ethereal,  sullied,  and  absorbed  ! 
Though  sullied  and  dishonored,  still  divine  ! 
An  heir  of  glory !  a  frail  child  of  dust!  ^ 

A  worm  !  a  god  I  I  tremble  at  myself, 
And  in  myself  am  lost," — Foung'.      See  Antithesis. 
There  seems  to  be  a  peculiar  elegance  in  the  use  of  this  figure,  when  the 
speaker  means  to  show  that  tlie  object  produces  at  least  some  interest  or  ex- 
citement in  his  own  feelings,  though  others  may  not  appreciate  it  so  fully. 
Ex. —  "  How  glad  from  the  cool  mossy  brim  to  receive  it, 

As  poised  on  the  curb  it  inclined  to  my  lips  !" 
Here  the  author  slyly  intimates  that  there  are  persons  who  underrate  the  ex- 
cellence of  water,  as  a  beverage. 

16.  Apo«'trop1ie  is  a  sudden  turning-away  in  the  fullness  of 
emotion,  to  address  some  person  or  other  otgect. 

Ex. — "Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory.  0  Death/  where  if  thy  sting?  O 
Gi^aoe!  where  is  thy  victory  fy — Bible.  "  But — ah  ! — him  !  the  first  great  martyr  in 
this  great  cause  I  him !  the  premature  victim  of  his  own  self-devoting  heart ! 
*  *  *  him!  cut  off  by  Providence,  in  the  hour  of  overwhelmhig  anxiety  and 
thick  gloom,  falling  ere  he  saw  the  star  of  his  country  rise !  how  shall  I  struggle 
with  the  emotions  that  stifle  the  utterance  of  thy  name! — Our  work  may  perish  :  hut 
thine  shall  endure  !  this  monument  may  moulder  away,  bat  thy  memory  shaU  not 
f ail. "'— Webster.  _  '         ' 

"  Thou  ling'ring  star,,  with  less'ning  ray. 
That  lov'st  to  greet  the  early  morn,' 
Again  thou  usher'st  in  the  day 
My  Mary  from  my  soul  was  torn. 
O  Mary !  dear  departed  shade !"  etq. — Bums.     See  Yision. 

IT.  Vision  represents  something  that  is  past^  future,  absent, 
or  simply  imagined,  as  if  it  were  really  present, 

Ex. — "  One  morning,  while  they  were  at  breakfast,  up  gallops  a  troop  of  horse, 
and  presents  an  order  for  the  arrest  of  the  whole  party. ^^—Jefrey. 

"  Frederick  immediately  sent  relief;  and,  in  an  ir\stant,  ail  Saxony  is  ovev" 
flowed  -with  armed  nien.^''—Macaulay. 

"  Advance,  then,  ye  future  generations  !  We  would  hail  you  as  you  rise  \v^ 
vour  long  succession!  *  *  *  we  bid  you  welcome  in  this  pleasant  land  of  tho 
i'athers." —  Webster. 

"Soldiers  !  from  yonder  pyramids,  forty  genemtions  of  men  look  down  upoq 
you !" — Bonaparte. 

12* 


268  RHETORICAL    FIGURES. 

1§.  Oiiomatope'ia  is  such  an  imitation  by  the  sound  of  the 
words,  as  may  correspond  to  or  suggest  the  sense.  Sound,  motion, 
and  even  sentiment,  may  be  imitated  by  this  figure. 

Ex. — "Away  they  went,  pell-mell,  hurry-skurry,  wild  buffalo,  wild  horse,  wild 
huntsman,  with  clang  and  clatter,  and  whoop  and  halloo,  that  made  the  forests 
ring !" — Irving, 

"  On  a  sudden  open  fly. 
With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarnnw  sound, 
Th'  infernal  doors,  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder." — Milton. 

"  Heaven  opened  wide 
Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound 
On  golden  hinges  turning." — Milton. 
"  When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw, 
The  line  too  labors,  and  the  words  move  slow." — Fope. 
To  this  figure  may  also  be  referred  such  new-coined  expressions  as  these  : 
"  He  was  hamhoozled.''''     "  He  oflered  me  the  whole  capoodle  for  three  hundred 
dollars."     "  Now  she  gallivants  it  with  another."     "  I  mean  that  curve,  flash, 
flourish,— or  circumbendibus — if  you  please — which  he  always  sticks  to  his  name." 

Two  or  more  figures  are  sometimes  involved  in  the  same  ex- 
pression. 

Meton.  and  Meta.  :     "  Here  the  sword  and  sceptre  rust ; 

Earth  to  earth,  and  dust  to  dust." — Groly. 
MiiTON.  AND  Person.  :  "  All  Switzerland  is  in  the  field  ; 

.  She  will  not  fly,  she  can  not  yield." — Muntgoviery. 

Exclamation,  Interrogation,  Climax,  and  Antithesis :  "I — a  foreigner!  Yes, 
gentlemen  !  But  who  was  De  Kalb  i  Who  was  McDonald  ?  Who  was  Pulaski  ? 
Who  was  La  Euyette  ?  and — who  was  Arnold  !" — Dr.  Shaniion. 


The  figures  underlie  the  entire  fabric  of  language.  The  principles 
which  they  involve,  have  produced,  and  continue  to  produce,  most  of 
the  various  meanings  or  applications  of  words,  and  often,  the  words 
themselves.  Nearly  one  half  of  the  meanings  of  words,  as  given  in 
our  dictionaries,  are  hxii  faded  figures, — -faded  metaphors, /aG?e<i  me- 
tonymies, SiW^  faded  synecdoches. 

Ex. — "The  blooming  rose,"  is  literal ;  "  The  hlooming  damsel,"  is  metaphorical. 
*' A  clear  brook,"  literal;  "A  clear  sky,"  metaphor;  ''A  clear  denioustration," 
meLaphor :  "A  clear  head."  metaphor  or  meioiiyniy.  "A  hard  rock,"  literal; 
"  A  hara  lesson,"  metaphor ;  "A  hard  heart,"  metaphor.  "  To  apprehend  u 
thief,"  literal ;  "  To  apprehend  the  meaning,"  metaphor  ;  "  To  apprehend  [fear] 
danger,"_  metapJior  and  metonymy.  ^^Imagination'''' — "  the  making  of  images  or 
idols,"  literal  and  obsolete  ;  "the  making  of  images  in  the  mind,"  metaphor  ;  "  the 
faculty,"  metonymy  (cause) ;  "  the  result"  (as,  "  strange  imaginations'''),  metonymy. 

Tlie  faculty,  its  action,  the  manner  of  its  action,  the  result  of  its 
action,  and  whatever  exhibits  or  concerns  any  of  these,  have  all, 
frequently,  but  one  name  in  common. 

From  the  material  world  around  us,  or  from  the  world  of  the 
senses,  the  mind  has  borrowed  nearly  all  the  words  in  which  it  ha.«* 
clothed  its  own  or  peculiar  possessions ;  that  is,  many  words,  applied 
first  to  material  things,  have  been  extended  to  things  intellectual  or 
abstract. 


RHETORICAL    FIGURES. — EXERCISES.  269 

"  The  spirit  in  its  literal  import  is  breath  or  wind.  Its  states  are  st^andlngs,  its 
emotions  are  movements,  its  sensibilities  &xq  feelings,  its  ■yie-z^*  and  ideas  are  siglits,  its 
conceptions  and  perceptions  are  takings,  its  apprehension  and  comprehension  are  a 
holding,  its  reflection  is  a  turning  back,  its  purpose  is  an  exhibition,  its  inferen^  is  a 
bringing  in,  and  its  conclusion  is  a  shutting  up?'' — Prof.  Gibbs.  "  Bectitude  is 
straightness,  error  is  a  wandering,  transgression  is  a  going  over,  education  is  a  draw- 
ing out,  a  language  is  a  tongue,  and  heaven  is  what  is  heaved  or  arched.'''' — /tiJ. 
'■^Bright  hopes,  unshaken  confidence,  corroding  cares." — /<;?. 

By  frequent  use,  the  figurative  sense  of  words  and  phrases  be- 
comes literal,  or  is  considered  so. 


EXERCISES. 


Pfli/ii  OM^  the  figures,  and  define  them: — 

Ambition  often  puts  men  upon  performing  the  meanest  ofBces :  so  climbing 
and  creeping  are  performed  in  the  same  posture. — Swift.  No,  Orlando ;  men 
are  April  when  they  woo,  December  when  they  are  wed ;  and  maids  are  May 
while  they  are  maids,  but  the  sky  changes  when  they  are  wives. — Shakespeare. 
What  a  piece  of  work  is  man !  how  noble  in  reason  !  how  infinite  in  faculties  I 
in  action,  how  like  an  angel !  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  God  1 — Id.  Honor 
travels  in  a  way  so  narrow,  where  but  one  goes  abreast — Id.  "What's  this  ?  a 
sleeve  ?  'Tis  like  a  demi-cannon.  Here's  snip,  and  nip,  and  cut,  and  shsh,  and 
slash. — Id.  The  lover  can  see  a  Helen  in  a  brow  of  Egypt. — Id.  When  sor- 
rows come,  they  come  not  single  spies,  but  in  battalions. — Id.  Where  Midnight 
listens  to  the  lion's  roar.  Must  I  leave  thee,  Paradise  ? — Milton.  One,  with 
God  on  his  side,  is  a  majority.  He  sells,  he  buys,  he  steals,  he  kills,  for  gold. 
Humbled,  but  not  dispirited ;  disappointed,  but  not  despairing.  But  when  they 
shook  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  at  you,  you  took  them.  A  life  on  the  ocean 
wave,  a  home  on  the  rolling  deep.  Yes,  this  [a  scull]  was  once  ambition's  airy- 
hall,  the  dome  of  thought,  the  palace  of  the  soul. — Byron.  Canst  thou  send  the 
Lightnings,  that  they  may  go,  and  say  unto  thee,  ''Here  we  are  1" — Bible.  Moses 
the  lawgiver  and  God's  first  pen. — Bacon. 


1.  Figures  should  be  well  founded,  becoming,  striking,  congi-uous 
throughout,  not  too  numerous,  and  not  overstrained  or  carried  too  far, 

2.  Figurative  language  should  be  preferred  to  plain  language,  only 
when  it  will  express  the  meaning  better,  or  improve  the  discourse. 

Improprieties. — "  The  colonies  were  not  yet  ripe  to  bid  adieu  to  British  con- 
nection."— Jefferson.  Incongruous  ;  mixed  metaphor.  "  There  is  not  a  single 
view  of  human  nature  that  is  not  sufficient  to  extinguish  the  seeds  of  pride." — 
Addison.  How  can  a  view  extinguish, — and  worse,  extinguish  seeds.  "The 
commercial  liberties  of  rising  states  were  shackled  by  paper  chains." — Bancroft. 
The  phrase  paper  chains  suggests  nothing  formidable.  "  When  the  mustang  is 
caught  in  a  lasso,  all  his  struggles  serve  only  to  rivet  his  chains,  and  deprive  him 
of  breath." — Hist  of  Texas.  Where  did  the  author  get  the  "chains ?"  " Flowers 
are  tbe  sweetest  things  that  God  ever  made,  and  forgot  to  put  a  soul  into." — Rev. 
II.  W.  Beecher.  Quite  ianciful,  though  rather  puerile  and  fantastic.  "  We  kneeled 
for  the  last  time  by  that  wonderful  old  furnace  [a  volcano],  where  the  hand  of 
God  works  the  bellows." — R^.  Geo.  Oheever.  A  figure  that  represents  God  as  a 
bellows-blower,  seems  to  me  undignified  and  unbecoming.  "  A  shower  had 
just  parenthesized  the  way  before  us." — Willis.  The  resemblance  is  not  so  ob- 
vious as  it  should  be.  "  Ho  had  as  numerous  an  offspring  as  a  Greek  verb."— 
Travels.  Farfetched  and  obscure.  "Omaid!  thou  art  so  beauteous  that  yon 
bright  sun  is  rising  all  in  haste,  to  gaze  upon  thee." — Novel,     Overstrained. 


270  RHETORfCAL    FIGURES. OBSERVATIONS. 

"Why,  beautiful  nymph,  do  you  close  the  curtain  that  fringes  your  eyes?" — 
Newspaper  Poem.  Worse.  "  U))  to  the  stars  the  sprawhng  mastiffs  fly,  and 
add  new  monsters  to  the  frighted  sky." — Blacklock.  Terrible  dog-barking,  truly  ! 
"No  flower  of  its  kindred,  no  rose-bud  is  nigh,  to  give  back  blush  for  blush,  or 
exchange  sigh  for  sigh." — Moore.  Here  the  two  roses  are  all  at  once  ciianged 
into  persons,— into  a  pair  of  blushing,  sighing  lovers.  "  Let's  grasp  the  fore- 
lock of  this  apt  occasion,  to  greet  the  victor  in  his  flow  of  glory." — British 
Drama.  Could  this  sentence  be  expressed  by  a  congruous  picture  ?  To  con- 
ceive all  the  imagery  as  grouped  into  one  visible  picture,  is  often  the  best  way 
to  judge  of  its  accuracy,  propriety,  or  beauty. 

Point  out  tlie  errors  : — 

No  human  happiness  is  so  serene  as  not  to  contain  some  alloy.  These  nro 
the  first  fruits  of  my  unfledged  eloqueuce,  of  which  thou  hast  often  complained 
that  it  was  buried  in  the  shade.  Since  the  time  that  reason  began  to  bud,  and 
put  forth  her  shoots,  thought  during  our  waking  hours  has  been  active  in  every 
breast.  The  current  of  ideas  has  been  always  moving.  The  wheels  of  the 
spiritual  ocean  have  been  exerting  themselves  with  perpetual  motion.  (Buds, 
currents,  and  wheels,  are  all  jumbled  together.)  At  length  Erasmus,  that  great 
injured  name  ....  curbed  the  wild  torrent  of  a  barbarous  age.     — stemmed — 

On  the  wide  sea  of  letters,  'twas  thy  boast. 
To  crowd  each  sail,  and  touch  at  every  coast ; 
Prom  that  rich  mine,  how  often  hast  thou  brought 
The  pure  and  precious  pearls  of  splendid  thought. 

OBSEKVATIONS. 

A  figure  may  be  contamed  in  a  single  word;  or  it  may  comprise  a  phrase, 
a  claibse,  a  sentence,  or  the  entire  discourse.  Sometimes  the  literal  and  the 
figurative  language  are  interwoven  throughout  the  sentence;  sometimes  each 
occupies  a  distinct  part  of  the  sentence ;  sometimes  they  ai-e  consecutive  in  dis- 
tinct sentences ;  and  sometimes  the  figurative  takes  up  the  entire  sentence  or 
discourse,  leaving  the  literal  to  be  inferred. 

Most  figures  are  a  sort  of  emblems  or  pictures, — a  universal  language, 
favorably  received,  readily  understood,  and  easily  remembered.  All  hterature, 
especially  that  which  has  lived  longest  and  delighted  the  world  most,  abounds 
in  figures.  Figures,  however,  should  be  used  sparingly  and  judiciously.  An 
abuse  of  them  is  very  apt  to  render  the  person  so  using  them  ridiculous,  and 
thus  to  diminish  at  once  the  dignity  and  effect  of  his  entire  discourse.  He  that 
forsakes  the  common  path  to  show  his  superior  adroitness  by  walking  on  the 
wire,  naturally  raises  our  laughter  if  he  falls.  Figures  are  designed  to  adorn,  to 
illustrate,  or  to  abridge  discourse  ;  and  particular  regard  should  therefore  be  had 
to  the  subject  of  the  discourse,  and  to  the  persons  for  whom  it  is  meant.  Some 
of  our  Indian  agents  have  very  properly  addressed  Indians  in  a  figurative  style 
that  would  be  quite  ridiculous  if  used  in  addressing  their  own  countrymen. 
Poetry  too,  being  founded  in  esthetic  principles,  admits  of  much  more  ornament 
than  prosa.  The  figures  used,  should  be  such  as  would  naturally  arise  to  a  per- 
son whose  mind  and  heart  have  fully  grasped  the  subject  in  all  its  bearings. 
They  should  never  indicate  that  he  left  the  main  subject  to  search  for  tliem. 
Not  the  cheek  that  is  daubed  over  with  glaring  cosmetics  is  the  one  to  please  us, 
but  that  which  glows  with  a  native,  healthy,  roseate  beauty  of  its  own.  The 
briefer  a  figure  is,  and  the  more  it  expresses  that  is  to  the  point,  the  bettor  it  is. 
How  excellent  is  that  figure  of  Dean  Swift's,  in  which  he  compares  the  holding 
of  high  public  offices  to  dancing  on  a  wire  I  It  suggests  at  once  the  vanity  of 
worldly  glory,  the  hankoriug  and  folly  of  ambition,  the  tact  and  labor  required 
to  sustain  oneself,  the  liability  to  a  fall,  the  stare  and  hu/za  of  the  crowd,  and 
their  contempt  and  mockery  after  a  fall. 


RHETORICAL    FIGURES. OBSERVATIONS.  271 

Figures  should  be  not  only  graphic,  and  in  harmony  with  the  sentiment,  but 
they  should  be  so  perfect  as  to  bear  study  or  criticism.  The  very  use  of  figures 
implies  an  aim  to  express  some  thought  or  sentiment  with  more  adequate  aud 
becoming  simplicity,  clearness,  beauty,  and  force.  Tliey  can  therefore  be  con- 
sidered hardly  proper,  or  preferable  to  plain  language,  unless  they  express  the 
meaning  better. 

Figures  should  be  new,  if  possible.  When  they  are  already  well  known, 
they  are  not  striking,  and  will  generally  appear  stale  and  insipid.  But  figures 
should  not  be  drawn  from  arts  or  sciences  not  well  known,  or  from  any  knowl- 
edge remote  from  common  observation ;  for  when  so  derived,  they  generally  in- 
dicate pedantry,  and  are  seldom  understood  or  fully  appreciated.  Sometimes, 
however,  a  figure  can  be  veiled  in  a  certain  indirectness,  or  in  a  little  obscurity, 
with  a  very  happy  ettect.  A  single  word  may  sometimes  show  a  delicate  and 
highly  expressive  figure  lurking  along  the  entire  sentence. 

As  the  same  object  may  often  be  compared  to  several  different  things,  care 
must  be  taken,  in  using  metaphors,  not  to  represent  it  partly  by  one  comparison 
and  partly  by  another.     Thus, — 

"  I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  in  vain, 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain." — Addison. 

That  is,  his  muse  is  a  monster,  partly  horse  and  partly  ship. 

When  several  consecutive  metaphors  are  used,  they  must  be  congruous  with 
one  another,  or  make  a  perfect  picture.    Different  perfect  pictures  may,  however, 
be  successively  presented  to  the  mind.     Hence  different  similes  or  metaphors 
are  sometimes  used  in  succession,  to  illustrate  the  same  subject ;  as, — 
"But  pleasures  are  like  poppies  spread, — 
You  seize  the  flower,  its  bloom  is  shed ; 
Or  like  the  snow-falls  in  the  river, — 
A  moment  white,  then  melt  forever,"  &c. — Burns:  Tarn  O^SJuinter. 

But  the  same  picture  must  not  be  monstrous, — partly  one  thing  and  partly 
another.  The  same  thought  should  not  be  expressed  partly  figurative  and  partly 
literal ;  unless  the  figurative  words  are  mere  tropes,  or  unless  a  complete  and 
proper  figure  at  once  suggests  itself  throughout  the  entire  sentence  or  paragraph. 
Such  a  mixture  of  figurative  aud  of  plain  language,  or  of  concrete  and  of  abstract 
objects,  as  is  contained  in  the  following  sentences,  is  inelegant:  "Her  cheeks 
were  blooming  with  roses  and  health;''  "The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the 
praise.^' 

Style  should  not  be  overloaded  with  figures ;  especially  if  they  do  not  form 
an  allegorical  picture  throughout.  Young,  imaginative  speakers  and  writera  are 
somethnes  ridiculously  extravagant  in  the  use  of  figurative  language,  and  thua 
acquire  a  habit  of  fustianizing,  spouting,  or  frothing,  which  they  never  entirely 
lose.     The  following  is  a  specimen  : — 

"  The  marble-hearted  marauder  might  seize  the  throne  of  civil  authority,  and 
hurl  into  thraldom  the  votaries  of  ratiouai  liberty.  Crash  after  crash  would  be 
heard  in  quick  succession,  as  the  strong  pillars  of  the  republic  give  way,  and 
Despotism  would  shout  in  heUish  triumph  among  the  crumbling  ruins.  Anarchy 
would  wave  her  bloody  sceptre  over  the  devoted  land,  and  the  bloodhounds  of 
civil  war  would  lap  the  gore  of  our  most  worthy  citizens.  The  shrieks  of  women 
aud  the  screams  of  children  would  be  drowned  amid  the  clash  of  swords  and  the 
cannon's  peal ;  and  Liberty,  mantling  her  face  from  the  horrid  scene,  would 
spread  her  golden-tinted  pinions,  and  wing  her  flight  to  some  far-distant  land, 
never  again  to  revisit  our  peaceful  shores  1" — From  a  Fourth-of-Juiy  Qraiion. 
This  is  the  ranting,  bombastic,  or  Asiatic  style.  The  proper  and  opposite  qual- 
ity is  terseness.  A  terse  style  indicates  sound  common  sense.  It  is  not  too 
adorned  or  elaborate,  nor  extravagant  in  any  respect ;  but  manly,  correct,  neat, 
and  expres^'ive. 


272  VERSIFICATION. — FEET. 

15.   VERSIFICATION. 


Poetry,*  in  its  highest  perfection,  is  tlionght,  feeling,  imagery, 

and  music,  expressed  in  language. 

The  spirit  of  music  in  the  poet  causes  not  only  the  selection  of  words  agreeable 
in  sound,  but  makes  the  language  metrical. 

Deficiency  in  any  of  these  must  be  compensated  by  greater  ex- 
cellence in  the  rest. 


Tersification  is  either  the  act  or  the  art  of  making  verse. 
Sometimes  it  denotes  the  result^  or  that  peculiar  structure  of  lan- 
guage which  distinguishes  poetry  from  prose. 

Verse  has  rhythm  and  rhyme. 

Rhythm  is  essential,  but  rhyme  is  not. 

"  Thou  art,  0  God,  the  life  and  light 
Of  all  this  wondrous  world  we  see."— ifoore. 
"The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  with  purple  and  gold." — Byron. 
"  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  Hves  sublime." — Longfellow. 
"  Come  as  the  winds  come  when  forests  are  rended ; 
Come  as  the  waves  come  when  navies  are  stranded." — Scott. 
"  O'nce  upon  a  midnight  dreary^  while  I  pondered,  weak  and  weary, 
O'ver  many  a  quaint  and  ciirious  volume  of  forgotten  I6re — 
While  I  nodded,  nearly  napping,  suddenly  there  came  a  tapping, 
As  of  some  one  gently  rapping,  rapping  at  my  chamber  door. 
'  'Tis  some  visitor,'  I  muttered,  *  tapping  at  my  chamber  door — 
Only  this,  and  nothing  moreJ'  " — E.  A.  Foe. 

From  these  lines  it  is  easy  to  see,  that  in  poetry  the  voice  or  the 
mind  passes  along  the  words  by  a  sort  of  regular  pulsations,  which 
constitute  the  rhythm^  metre,  or  measure.  The  correspondence  or 
similarity  of  sound  at  equal  or  proportionate  intervals,  or  in  im- 
mediate succession,  is  termed  rhyme. 

Verse  is  beautiful  language,  keeping  time  like  music ;  or,  syl- 
lables arranged  according  to  accent,  quantity,  and,  generally,  rhyme  ; 
and  80  divided  into  lines  as  to  promote  harmony. 


Feet. 

Feet  are  the  smallest  rhythmical  divisions  of  the  lines. 

•  PoBTRY  means,  literally,  a  making ;  vkrse,  a  turning,  i.  e.,  at  the  end  of  a  line  to 
make  anotlier  line;  iambus,  attacking,  being  first  used  In  satire;  trochke,  tripping,  run- 
ning ;  DACTYi.,  finger  ;  anapmt,  reversed,  i.  e.,  reversed  dactyl;  CjKscra,  chitting,  divid- 
ing; BPosvKK.,  solemn ;  pyrhiiio,  a  loar-dance,  thence,  lively;  iiypermeter,  a  measure 
over,  KLUP8I8,  a  leaving-ovt;  vimova^vi,  more  than  enough.  Figurk,  «  form  of  Ian- 
ffitage;  similk,  likeness;  mktai'hor,  transfer;  allegory,  speaking  in  another  thing; 
METONYMY,  c/uinge  of  names;  SYNEonocuE,  understanding  one  thing  with  anotlier ;  an- 
TiTHiais,  setting  against ;  inoTny ,  dixsembling ;  VKv.Ki.\vs,\i,  passing  hy  or  over  ;  hyper- 
bole, throwing  beyond,  overshooting  ;  KVPur.Miayi,  speaking  well ;  aposteopiie,  f«/'«i«o 
away;  omumatopkia,  making  or  cUning  worda. 


VERSIFICATION. — FEET.  273 

Oraramarians  say  they  are  called  /eei,  because  they  show  how  the  voice  "^  stevH^''  along 
the  lines.  I  rather  think  the  name  was  at  first  given  from  the  fact  that  men,  especially  in  a 
primitive  state  of  society,  naturally  use  the/ooif,~to  mark  or  beat  time  in  music. 

Feet,  in  the  English  language,  are  formed  according  to  accent  and 
quantity. 

A  simple  foot  comprises  not  more  than  three  syllables. 

There  are  four  principal  feet, — the  iambus,  the  anapest,  the  tro- 
chee, and  the  dactyl ;  and  three  secondary  feet, — the  ccesura,  the 
,spondee,  and  the  pyrrhic. 

An  ianibu§  consists  of  two  syllables,  and  has  the  poetic  accent 
on  the  second. 

Ex.—  "  The  curfew  tolls  the  kn^ll  of  parting  day." 

"  The  fi^ld  is  heaped  with  bleeding  steeds,  and  flags,  and  cloven  mail." 

An  anapest  consists  of  three  syllables,  and  has  the  poetic  accent 
on  the  last. 

Ex.—  "  O'er  the  land  of  the  fr^e  and  the  home  of  the  hrave." 

A  trochee  consists  of  two  syllables,  and  has  the  poetic  accent 
on  the  first. 

Ex. —  "  S6e  the  distant  forest  dark  and  waving." 

A  dactyl  consists  of  three  syllables,  and  has  the  poetic  accent  on 
the  first. 

Ex.-  "  Bachelor's  hall,— what  a  qu4er-looking  place  it  is  !" 

The  iambus  and  the  anapest  are  kindred  feet,  and  hence  they  are 

sometimes  used  promiscuously. 

Ex. —  "  F6r  the  winds  &nd  the  waves  a,re  absent  there. 

And  the  sands  are  bright  ks  the  stars  that  glow." 

The  trochee  and  the  dactyl  are  kindred  feet,  and  hence  they  are 
sometimes  used  promiscuously. 

Ex.—  "  Bounding  S,way  6ver  hill  &nd  valley." 

A  caesM'ra  is  a  long  or  accented  syllable  used  as  one  foot. 

Ex.—  "  Kestless  mortals  toil  for  naught.'^ 

"  Thou  wast  that  all  to  m6,  love, 
For  which  my  soul  did  pine — 
A  green  isle  in  the  sea,  love, 
A  fountain  and  a  shrine."— Po«. 

^*G61d  !  gold  !  gold  !  g61d !  „    ,  (*  5^et)  )  ,^^       ^  ^ 

H6avy  to  get  Ld.  light  to  ho\d:'~Bhod.  (4  feet)  \  ^^"^^  ^"^""^-^ 

A  spoMdee  consists  of  two  long  syllables  about  equally  accented. 
Sometimes  only  the  first  syllable  is  a  long  one. 

Ex.—  "  Ngar  the  lake  where  drooped  the  willow. 

Long  time  hgo  V^— Morns. 
'<  O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp,  , ,    ,  „     ,^.7^ 

Kocks,  eaves,  lakes,  tens,  bogs,  dens,  S,nd  shades  eif  dtaih.''—MtUan. 

A  pyrrhic  is  a  foot  of  two  syllables  left  unaccented.  Some- 
times the  accent  in  iambic  verse,  to  avoid  resting  on  a  short  syllable, 


274  VERSIFICATION. POETIC    PAUSES. 

passes  to  the  first  syllable  (if  long)  of  the  next  foot,  making  this  foot 
a  spondee,  and  leaving  the  other  unaccented. 

Ex. —  "  Of  the  low  sunset  clouds,  and  the  blue  sky." —  Willis. 

"  Presently  in  the  edge  of  the  last  tint." — Id. 
*'  TO  the  faint  golden  mellowness,  a  star." — Id. 

Pyrrhics  and  spondees  are  not  always  thus  produced ;  but  they  are  generally 
best  when  made  on  the  compensation  principle. 

The  secondary  feet  are  sometimes  allowed  to  break  the  regular 
measure,  in  order  to  avoid  a  tedious  sameness  in  the  rhythm,  or  for 
the  sake  of  onomatopeia. 


Poetic  Pau§es. 

To  improve  the  rhythm  or  the  verse  still  further,  there  are  also 
two  pauses ;  the  final  and  the  ccesural. 

The  filial  pause  is  a  slight  pause  made  at  the  end  of  each  line 
even  when  the  grammatical  sense  does  not  require  it. 

Ex. —  "  Ye  who  have  anxiously  and  fondly  watched 

Beside  a  fading  friend,  unconscious  that 
The  cheek's  bright  crimson,  lovely  to  the  view, 
Like  nightshade,  with  unwholesome  beauty  bloomed." 

The  caBsiiral  pau§e  occurs  within  the  line ;  most  frequently 
about  the  middle  of  it.  It  belongs  chiefly  to  long  lines.  It  not  only 
improves  the  rhythm,  but,  like  emphasis,  it  often  serves  to  arrest, 
with  fine  effect,  the  attention  to  the  meaning.  Sometimes  a  line 
has  two  or  more  csesural  pauses,  one  of  which  is  commonly  greater 
than  the  rest. 

Ex. —  ^  •'  But  not  to  m^  returns 

Day,  I  or  the  sw^et  approach  of  6ven  or  morn." — Wilton. 

"  Then  her  cheek  |  was  pale,  and  thinner  |    |  than  should  be  |  for  one  so  voung  ; 
And  her  eyes,  |  on  all  my  motions,  |    |  with  a  mute  observance  hung." — ^hmyson. 

"  Warms  |  in  the   sun,  |    |  refreshes  |  in  the  breeze. 
Glows  1  in  the  stars,  |    |  and  blossoms  |  in  the  trees." — Pope. 

"  No  sooner  had  the  Almighty  ceased,  |  than  all 
The  multitude  of  angels,  |  with  a  shout 
Loud  I  as  from  numbers  without  number,  J  sweet 
As  from  blest  voices  |  uttering  joy,"  etc. — Milton. 

What  a  fine  effect  on  the  sense  have  the  pauses  after  loud  and  sweet.  Milton 
has  generally  shown  remarkable  skill  in  his  management  of  the  poetic  pauses. 

Good  poets  generally  aim  to  construct  their  verse  in  such  a  way 
that  the  final  and  ccesural  pauses  may  properly  fall  cohere  the  sense^ 
in  expressive  common  speech,  naturally  requires  pauses.  The  same  is 
true  in  regard  to  poetic  accent.,  with  reference  to  common  accent  and  to 
emphasis.     See  stanza  22,  p.  281. 

Thts  Ib  a  very  important  principle;  for  natural,  smooth,  and  easy  versification  depends 
tnainly  upon  it. 


VERSIFICATION. QUANTITY. POETIC    ACCENT.  276 

(Quantity. 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  its  relative  quantity  of  sound ;  or, 
what  is  equivalent  to  the  same  thing,  it  is  the  relative  time  occupied  in 
uttering  it. 

Quantity  and  accent  are  two  different  things,  and  shonld  never  be,  as  they  usually  are, 
confounded.    Not  every  long  syllable  is  accented,  nor  is  every  short  syllable  unaccented. 

In  respect  to  quantity,  all  the  syllables  in  the  language  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes ;  long,  short,  and  variable. 

The  quantity  of  many  syllables  depends  on  the  manner  of  uttering  them, 
and  on  their  association  with  other  syllables ;  yet  we  may  safely  say,  thai 
some  syllables  are  always  long,  and  others  always  short. 

A  syllable  having  a  long  vowel  or  diphthongal  sound,  especially  when 
closed  by  one  or  more  consonant  sounds,  is  long. 

Ex.— Dry,  warm,  proud,  flashed.     "  Eound  us  roars  the  tempest  louder." 

A  syllable  having  a  short  vowel  sound,  but  closed  or  followed  by  con- 
sonants in  such  a  way  as  to  retard  pronunciation,  is  generally  long. 
Ex. — "When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw." 
A  syllable  ending  with  a  short  vowel  sound,  is  short. 
Ex. — The,  a,  to,  qnantity,  salary. 

A  syllable  next  to  an  accented  syllable  of  the  same  word,  is  often  made 
short  by  the  greater  stress  on  the  accented  syllable. 

Ex. — B-omeward,  piiaw^ment. 

An  unimportant  monosyllable,  ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded 
by  a  single  short  vowel,  and  joined  immediately  to  the  more  important 
word  to  which  it  relates,  is  short;  as,  *'a^  war." 

A  few  syllables  in  the  language  may  be  pronounced  either  as  one  syl- 
lable or  as  two. 

Ex. — Hour,  our,  fire,  lyre,  choir. 

Two  syllables  may  sometimes  be  contracted  into  one,  either  by  the 
pronunciation  or  by  omission. 

Ex. — Fie-ry  for  fi-e-ry,  His  for  it  is,  threafning  for  threatming. 


Poetic  Accent. 

The  poetic  accent,  which  divides  the  lines  into  feet,  corre- 
sponds to  the  heat  in  music.  It  controls  the  position  of  words  ac- 
cording to  quantity  and  word-accent. 

There  is  perhaps  no  word  so  long  or  so  uncouth,  that  it  may  not, 
by  some  arrangement,  be  brought  into  some  kind  of  verse. 

Any  monosyllable  may  receive  the  poetic  accent. 
Ex.—         "  Blue  w4s  the  lake,  the  clouds  were  gone." 
"  Gone  w^re  the  clouds,  the  lake  was  blue." 

But  it  is  generally  inelegant,  and  sometimes  perhaps  incorrect,  to 
place  it  on  a  short  syllable. 

Ex.— We  can  not  read,  "As  4  friend  thank  him,  4nd  witli  joy  see  hini." 
But  we  may  read,  "  Se6  Mm  with  joy,  and  thank  him  as  a  friend." 


276  VERSIFICATION. LINES,    OR    VERSES. 

Monosyllables,  being  unencumbeied  by  word-accent,  are  the  words 
most  easily  reduced  to  feet. 

When  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  are  introduced  into  verse, 
the  poetic  accent  must  take  the  place  of  the  primary  or  the  secondary 
accent. 

Should  the  poetic  accent  fall  on  a  different  syllable,  the  word 
must  be  rejected,  or  the  arrangement  must  be  so  varied  as  to  admit 
it.  (To  this  rule  we  find  in  our  poets  a  very  few  exceptions ;  chiefly 
in  the  use  of  compound  words.) 

Ex. —         "  Perhaps  like  m^  lie  flounders  oiit  a  line, 

And  begins  another — there  stops "    (Erroneous.) 

A  long  syllable  of  a  word,  next  to  an  accented  syllable,  never 
receives  the  poetic  accent,  or  it  is  made  short.  (There  are  a  very 
few  exceptions.) 

Ex. — "  Westward  the  course  of  Empire  takes  its  way." 

It  should  not,  however,  be  inferred,  that  every  syllable  having 
the  word-accent,  must  also  receive  the  poetic  accent.  Only  this  is 
necessary, — that  the  poetic  accent,  in  its  proper  march  through  the 
verse,  shall  never  supersede  the  other  accent,  by  resting  on  a  diflfer- 
ent  syllable  of  the  same  word. 

Ex. — "  Whilst  our  maidens  shall  dance  with  their  white  waving  arms, 
Smging  joy  to  the  brave  that  delivered  their  charms. — Campbell. 

The  poetic  accent  generally  passes  in  some  regular  order  through 
the  entire  poem.  Accented  syllables  demand  it;  long  syllables 
naturally  tend  to  draw  it  upon  themselves ;  and  short  syllables  in- 
cline to  refuse  it. 

When  it  comes  in  collision  with  the  common  accent,  the  harshness  is  gen- 
erally greater  than  when  it  rests  on  a  short  syllable.  It  sometimes  accommo- 
dates itself  to  the  common  accent,  where  the  sense  and  melody  allow  a  consider- 
able pause  ;  that  is,  at  the  end,  at  the  beginning,  or  near  the  middle  of  the  line, 
though  rarely  the  last.  It  seems,  indeed,  to  be  a  general  principle,  to  allow  the 
poet  most  liberty  at  these  places,  not  only  as  to  accent,  but  also  as  to  extra  short 
syllables.  (See  pp.  271-18).  To  accommodate  itself  to  quantity,  the  poetic  ac- 
cent may  sometimes  vary  from  its  regular  stations,  either  by  preferring  the 
previous  or  the  subsequent  syllable,  or  by  passing  over  one  more  syllable  than 
the  regular  number,  or  by  resting  on  each  of  several  successive  long  syllables. 
See  pp.  277-78. 

.Verse  is  generally  most  melodious  when  the  regularly  accented 
syllables  are  long,  and  the  unaccented  short. 
Ex.— "At  the  close  of  the  day  when  the  hamlet  is  still." 


fjincN,  or  Verses. 

A  line;  or  verse,  is  the  shortest  finished  portion  from  which 
the  poet  may  turn  to  make  another. 

A  lino,  according  to  its  number  of  feet,  is  sometimes  called  a  monom'eter  (one 


VERSIFICATION. — LINES,    OR    VERSES.  277 

foot),  a  dim'eter,  a  irim'eter,  a  ietram/eter,  a  pentam'eter,  a  Jieosam'eter,  a  Jieptam'- 
eter,  or  an  octomfeter. 

Iambic  or  anapestic  lines  sometimes  end  with  one  or  two  addi- 
tional unaccented  short  syllables,  called  supernumerary  or  hy per- 
imeter syllables.     Such  lines  are  called  hyper  meters. 

Trochaic  or  dactylic  lines  often  end  with  the  caesura. 

Iambic  lines  may  occasionally  begin  with  a  trochee,  a  dactyl,  or 
a  spondee. 

Ex. —    ^'■Bursts  the  wild  cry  of  terror  and  dismay." — Gampbell. 
^'■Hovering  a  space  till  winds  the  signal  blow." — Milton. 
'■'■Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand." — Beatiie. 
*'  Weep,  weep,  and  rend  your  hair  for  those  who  n6ver  shaU  return." — Macaulay. 

A  trochee  may  sometimes  be  admitted   within  an  iambic  line, 
where  the  rhythm  and  sense  allow  a  considerable  pause. 
Ex. —      "  Of  goodliest  trees  loaden  with  fairest  fruit." — Milton. 
"These  [prairies]  are  the  gardens  of  the  desert,  these 

The  iiashorn  fields,  boundless  and  beautiful." — Bryant. 
"  The  song  is  hushed,  the  laughing  nymphs  are  flown ; 
And  he  is  left,  musmg  of  bliss,  alone." — T.  Moore. 

Iambic  lines  occasionally  admit  an  anapest,  provided  it  is  such 
a  one  as  might  be  contracted,  or  one  that  has  no  consonant  be- 
tween the  unaccented  syllables,  or  only  a  liquid,  or  such  a  conso- 
nant as  very  little  obstructs  utterance. 

Ex.—     "With  Heave«-'«  artillery  fraught,  come  rdttling  on." — Milton. 
"  And  many  a  youtli,  and  many  a  maid.'''' — Id. 
"That  binds  him  to  a  woman's  delicate  love.'''' — Willis. 

It  is  sometimes  a  beauty  to  lengthen  out  a  line  a  little  by  short, 
tripping  syllables. 

Ex- — "Where  ^rst  the  jay  within  the  61m's  tall  crgst, 

Made  gdrruUnis  trouble  round  her  unfledged  young." — T.  B.  Bead. 
"And  ray  native  land  !  whose  magical  name 
Thrills  to  my  heart  like  electric  flame." — Pringle. 

Anapestic  lines  may  occasionally  begin  with  an  iambus  or  a 
spondee. 

Ex.—     "  Their  swords  are  a  thousand,— their  bosoms  are  6ne.''''—Caniphell. 
'■^Olflf  to  the  prairie,  sweet  maiden,  with  m^ ; 
'Tis  as  gr^en,  and  as  wide,  and  as  wild,  as  the  s^a." 

Some  anapestic  verse  occasionally  admits  a  spondee  or  an  iambus. 

Ex.—      "  The  poplars  are  felled,  farewell  to  the  shade,  [the  poem. 

And  the  whispering  sounds  of  the  cool  colonnade."— Coi^-joer.       See 

A   pleasant  rhythm  is    sometimes   produced   by    throwing,  one 
anapest,  or  even  two,  into  each  iambic  line. 
Ex. —     "  I  come  !  I  come  !  yS  have  called  me  16ng ; 

I  come  6'er  thS  mountains  with  light  §Jid  song."— J/r«.  Eemana. 
"Afar  in  thS  desgrt  I  love  to  ride, 
With  thg  silent  Biish-bSy  Sione  by  my  side."— Prm^Ze. 


27ft  VERSIFICATION. STANZAS. VERSE. 

To  preserve  equality  or  proportion  in  time,  seems  to  he  a,  gov- 
erning principle  in  versification  ;  and  variations  in  the  position  of 
the  poetic  accent  or  in  the  number  of  unaccented  syllables,  are  allo^v- 
able  where  the  chief  poetic  pauses  occur,— at  the  beginnings  or  the 
ends  of  lines,  and  at  the  ccesural  pause. 

Ex. —     "  Andgive  me  for  my  bushel  sown 

Twice  ten  for  one:''  (Prolong  the  sound  as  you  read.) 

"  Keeping  time,  time,  time, 
In  a  sort  of  Eunic  rhyme." — Poe. 
»» Ye've  trailed  me  through  the  forest;  \  ye've  trailed  me  o'er  the  stream  ; 
And  struggling  through  the  everglade  |  your  bristling  bayonets  gleam."— Pai^on.. 

This  is  a  very  important  principle  ;  for  by  means  of  it  most  of  the  apparent  irregu- 
larities in  versification  may  be  explained. 


stanzas. 

Lines  are  formed  into  stanzas. 

A  Ktaiiza  is  a  complete  group  of  lines  constructed  in  a  cer- 
tain way  with  respect  to  one  another. 

Two  consecutive  lines  form  a  couplet  or  distich  ;  three,  a  triplet. 
Such  lines  are  usually  understood  as  rhyming  together. 

Short  lines  are  seldom  formed  into  stanzas,  unless  in  combina- 
tion with  long  lines. 

The  greater  portion  of  our  poetry  consists  of  lines  of  medium  length. 

Long  lines  are  sometimes  broken  at  the  csesural  pause,  and 
written  in  two  lines  each. 

Rhymes  must  begin  with  different  letters,  but  end  with  the  same 
or  nearly  the  same  sound. 

Rhymes  that  are  not  exact,  yet  authorized,  are  called  allowable  rhymes. 

Rhymes  may  run  back  into  the  lines  as  far  as  three  syllables. 
Hence  they  are  classified  thus :  Single  rhymes,  double  I'liymes, 
and  triple  rhymes. 

A  rhyming  element  usually  corresponds  to  but  one  other  one; 
but  sometimes  to  more. 

Lines  are  sometimes  so  formed  as  to  have  rhyming  syllables 
within  them,  as  well  as  at  the  end.       See  p.  272. 

Some  verse  has  no  rhyme.     Such  is  styled  blanh  verse. 

Blank  verse,  being  without  the  music  of  rhyme,  must  usuallv, 
to  sustain  the  dignity  of  poetry,  excel  in  other  respects. 


Verse. 

The  word  vers«  is  properly  applicable  to  any  single  line'o' 
poetry ;  but,  by  synecdoche,  it  may  be  applied  to  a  stanza,  or  to 
poetry  in  general,  as  a  modest  terra,  meaning  something  that  has 
at  lea.st  the  form,  if  not  the  spirit,  of  poetry. 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC    VERSE. 


279 


Verse,  according  to  what  foot  prevails  in  it,  is  usually  divided 
into  four  kinds  ;  iambic,  anapestic,  trochaic,  and  dactylic. 

Verse  that  is  very  irregular  in  its  feet,  or  in  the  combination  of 
its  lines,  has  been  styled  composite. 


SCANNING. 


To  scan  verse  is  to  show  how  it  is  formed  in  respect  to  its  feet, 
— to  analyze  its  versification. 

Each  line  is  usually  scanned  by  itself;  but  it  seems  best  to  scan 
continuously  from  one  line  into  another,  when  we  can  thus  avoid 
irregularities. 

Ex. —  "  'Tis  the  last  rose  of  summer 

Left  blooming  alone ;  (4  feet.) 

All  its  lovely  companions 

Are  faded  and  gone."  (4  feet.) 

Sometimes  more  than  one  mode  of  scanning,  may  be  applied  to 
the  same  poem. 

That  mode  is  always  preferable  which  is  simplest  or  most  musical. 


$3. 

aah  c  ch 


i  + 


THE  ELEMENTAEY  COMBINATIONS  OF  LINES  IN  ENGLISH  POETRY. 

To  a  person  wishing  to  write  verse,  perhaps  nothing  can  be  presented  more 
useful  than  a  general  circuit  of  the  combinations  of  poetic  lines,  with  their  scaji- 
sion  ;  especially  if  so  selected  as  to  embrace  all  the  various  deviations,  or  licenses, 
of  which  poets  may  avail  themselves. 

B^"  The  letters/,  i,  a,  t,  d,  and  c,  placed  on  the  left  of  the  stanzas,  denote  respectively 
feet,  iarnbics,  anapests,  trochees,  dactyls,  and  caesuras  ;  the  letters  above  the  stanzas  show 
the  rhyme ;  the  sign  plus  (+)  denotes  hypermeter  syllables ;  accentual  marks  are  used  to 
aid  in  showing  the  versification,  and  sometimes  they  show  irregular  versification ;  and  up- 
right dashes  are  sometimes  used  to  show  caesural  pauses. 

1.   IAMBIC   VERSE. 
1. 

ah  ah 
%  "His  wit. 

With  smart. 
Has  hit 
My  heart."- 

3. 

ahah 
2  i        "Love  miist,  in  short, 
Keep  fond  and  triie. 
Through  good  report. 
And' evil  too." — T.  Moore. 

5. 

aah  cch 
2  >       "0  precious  6ne, 

Let  thy  tongue  run 

In  S.  sweet  fret ; 
And  this  will  give 
A  chance  to  live 
A  long  time  yet." 


"  The  16sse3, 
The  crosses, 
3  i  That  Active  men  engage ; 

The  fears  all. 
The  tears  all. 
Of  dim  declining  age."— .Burn"». 
4. 
ab  ah 
2i+  "To  halls  of  splendor, 
2  i  Let  gr^at  ones  hie ; 

Through  light  more  tender, 
Our  pathways  lie." — Moort, 

6. 

aah  cch 
2 1        "  The  pibroch  r4ng 
With  b61der  clang 
8  i  +    A16ng  the  hills  of  heather ; 
And  fresh  and  strong 
The  thistle  sprung. 
That  had  begun  to  wither."— .BE>^^. 


280 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC    VERSE. 


2i 


8/' 
2i 
i 
8/ 


2i 
Si 


Si 

8/ 


8/ 
8i 


Ah 
4/ 

8i 


8» 
41 


7. 

"  Hi3  gifts  divine 

THrough  all  appear, 
And  round  the  year 
His  glories  shine.'' — Songster. 
8. 
alh  a 
"  No :— 'T(8  a  fast  to  dole 
Thy  sheaf  of  wheat, 
And  meat, 
■(Jnto  thS  hungry  soul." — Herrick. 
10. 
aahc  ch 
"  The  86ul  refined 
Is  most  inclined 
To  ^very  moral  excellence  ; 
All  vice  is  dull, 
A  knave's  a  fool ; 
And  Virtue  is  the  chUd  of  Sense. " 
Young. 
12. 
at  a  b 
"  When  thoii  art  nigh,  it  seems 
A  new  creation  round ; 
The  sun  has  fairest  beams. 
The  lute  a  softer  sound." — Moore. 
14. 
alccl 
"  Tread  softly, — ^bow  the  hdad, — 
In  reverent  silence  bow  ; 
No  passing  bell  doth  toll, — 
Yet  an  immortal  soul 

Is  passing  now." — Mrs.  Sovthey. 
16. 
aah  c  ch 
'  Freeze,  freeze,  thou  bitter  sky, 
Thou  dost  not  bite  so  nigh 

As  benefits  forgot ; 
Though  thou  the  waters  warp, 
Thy  sting  is  not  so  sharp 
As  fiiends  rememb'ring  not." 

Shakespeare. 
18. 
aabb 
"  Whene'er  a  noble  deed  is  wr6ught, 
Whene'er  is  spokgu  a  noble  thought, 
Our  hearts,  with  glad  surprise, 
To  higher  levels  rise." — Atlantic 
Monthly. 
19. 
ab  ab  c  d  d  c 
"An  infant  on  its  m6ther'8  br6ast — 
A  boiiucing  boy  at  play — 
A  youth  by  maiden  fair  caressed — 
An  old  man  silver  gray — 
Is  all  of  life  we  know  : 
A  joy — a  fear ; 
A  smile — a  tear ; — 
And  all  is  o'er  below  1 — Shaw. 


9.  ..;..i 

aaab  c  ccb 
2  i  +     "  Could  love  for(5ver 
Eun  like  a  river, 
And  Time's  endeavor 
2 1  Be  tried  in  vain, — 

No  other  pleasure 
With  this  could  measure ; 
And  like  a  treasure 
We'd  hug  the  chain." — Byron. 

11. 

ab  ab  c  ccb 

2  /"  "  Dream,  baby,  dream  ! 
2*+      Thine  eyelids  quiver. 

Know'st  thou  the  theme 

Of  yon  bright  river  ? 
It  saith,  *  Be  calm,  be  sure, 

3  i      Unfailing,  gentle,  pure  : 

So  shall  thy  life  endure, 
Like  mine,  for  ever.' " — CornwaU* 

13.  Gay's  Stanza. 
abab 
3  *  +  "  From  Greenland's  icy  m6untaiu8, 
From  India's  coral  strand. 
Where  Afric's  sunny  fountains 
3/  Koll  down  their  golden  sand.'* 

Eeber. 
15. 
ab  cb 
3*+  "  'Tis  swe^t  to  love  in  childhood, 
3/     When  the  souls  that  w6  bequeath, 
Si  +  Are  beautiful  in  freshness, 
Sf  As  thS  coronals  we  wreathe." 

This  stanza  may  also  be  scanned  con- 
tinuously, without  irregularity;  and  it 
may  be  written  as  well  in  two  lines. 

17. 

abab 
Si      " Flv  swift,  my  li^ht  gazelle, 
3  i  +         To  her  who  now  lies  waking 
To  hear  thy  silver  bell 
The  midnight  silence  breaking, 
Moore. 

20. 

ab  ab  c  c 

Sf  "  G6,  S5ul,  the  b6dy'8  gu6st, 
Si-V        Upon  a  thankless  Errand  ; 
Fear  not  to  touch  the  best. 

The  truth  shall  bo  thy  warrant : 
Sf  Go,  since  I  n^eds  must  die, 

3  i  And  give  the  world  the  lie.*** 

3  i+  Tell  arts  they  have  not  soundness, 
8  i  +        But  vary  by  esteeming ; 

Tell  schools  they  want  profoundness, 
And  stand  too  much  on  seeming. 
If  arts  and  schools  reply, 
Give  arts  and  schools  tne  lie. 
Barniield. 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC    VERSE. 


281 


31.    See  19. 

a  ahh 
8  4    *'  "What  8C(5ne8  of  glory  rise 

Before  my  dazzled  eyes  1 
4i    Youn^  zephyrs  wave  their  wanton 
winffs, 
Aud  melody  celestial  rings." —  Croly. 

33.    Shokt-metee  Stanza. 
ah  al) 
Zi    "  The  hurricane  hath  might 

Along  the  Indian  shore ; 
4i       And  far,  by  Ganges'  banks,   at 
night, 
Is  heard  the  tiger's  roar." 
Hemans. 

35. 

aal  cch 
4 1    "  If  solid  happiness  we  ]5rize. 

Within  our  breast  the  jewel  lies  ; 
8  i  And  they  are  fools  who  roam  : 

The  world  has  nothing  to  bestow  ; 
From  our  own  selves  our  joys  must 
flow. 
And  that  dear  hut — our  home." 
Cotton. 


(ISIartial.) 


ar. 


33. 
ah  all 
2/  "  Go,  lovely  rose  ! 

4  i    Tell  her  that  wastes  her  time  and  me, 

2  i      ^  That  now  she  knows, 
4  i    When  I  resemble  her  to  thee, 

4  i    How  sweet  and  fair  she  seems  to  be." 
WaUer. 
This  stanza  forcibly  illustrates  several 
of  the  chief  principles  laid  down  under 
Versiflcatioa. 

3*. 
ah  ah 
2/  "  Gay.  guiltless  pair, 

4i+    What  seek  ye  from  the  fields  of 

heaven  ? 
3 1  +  Ye  have  no  need  of  prayer. 

Ye  have  no  sins  to  be  forgiven." 
Sprague. 
36. 
a  bch  d  d 

3  i4-  "  It  was  a  siimmer  Evening, — 

3  i           Old  Kaspar's  work  was  done, 
4»         And  he,  before  his  cottage  door, 
Was  sitting  in  the  sun  ; 
And  by  him  sported  on  the  green. 
His  little  grandchild  Wilhelmine.'' 
SoutJiey. 


CoMMON-METKB  StANZA. 

ah  ch 
4i  "To  hunt  the  d^er  with  hoiind  and 

horn, 
8  i         Earl  P^rcy  took  his  way ; 

The  child  that's  yet  unborn,  may  rwe 
The  hunting  of  that  day." 

Chevy  Chase. 

Or  thus: — 

"  To  hunt  the  deer  with  hound  and  horn,  Earl  Percy  took  his  way 
The  child  that's  yet  unborn,  may  rue  the  hunting  of  that  day." 

38. 

ah  ch 

4/  *'  Fair  scenes  for  childood's  opening 

bloom, 
8 1  +      For  sportive  youth  to  stray  in  ; 
For  manhood  to  enjoy  his  strength. 
And  age  to  wear  away  in." 

Wordsworth. 
30,  LoNG-METBE  Stanza. 
ah  ah 
'  So  bWe  yon  windi^  river  flows, 
It  sdems  an  outlfet  from  the  sky, 
Where,  waiting  till  the  west-wind 
blows. 
The  freighted  clouds  at  anchor 
lie." — Longfellow. 
33. 
aaa 
'Aroiind  Sebago's  lonely  14ke, 
There  lingers  not  a  breeze  to  break 
The  mirror  which  its  waters  make." 
Whittier. 


4i 


4i 


ah  ah.    (Sentimental.) 
4/  "A  violet  by  a  mossy  stone, 
3  i        Half-hidden  from  the  eye, 
Fair  as  a  star,  when  only  one 
Is  shining  in  the  sky." 

Wordsworth. 


ah  ab 
4t  +  "  The  Ocean looketh  lip  to  heaven, 

3  *  As  'tw(5re  a  living  thing ; 
The  homage  of  its  waves  is  given, 

In  ceaseless  worshiping." 
Whittier, 

31. 

ah  a  b 
Her  heart  is  like  a  faded  fl6wer. 
Whose  beauty's  lost  and  sweet- 
ness flown ; 
Forgot,  neglected  in  the  bower. 
And  left  by  all  to  die  alone.'' 
Songster. 

33. 

ah  ah 

4  i  "  There  is  a  cd,lm  for  those  who  w6ep, 
A  r^st  for  weary  pilgrims  foiind  ; 

They  softly  lie,  aiid  sweetly  sleep, 
2  f        Low  in  the  ground  y~Monf^om. 


4i  + 
4i 


282 


VBBSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC    VERSE. 


34, 

aahh 
4i  "Those  Evening  bells!  those  Evening 
b^lls ! 
How  many  S,  tale  their  music  tella 
Of  youth  and  home,  and  that  sweet 

time 
"When  last  I  heai'd  their  soothing 
chime." — Moore. 

36. 

a  a  ah 
4i  "  Who  fed  me  from  her  gentle  breast, 
And  hushed  nae  in  her  arms  to  rest, 
And  on  my  cheeks  sweet  kisses 
ji-ressed  ? 
i+  My  Mother." — Thomson, 

The  expression  "  My  Mother,"  closes 
each  stanza  of  the  poem.  A  part  thus 
repeated,  or  making  the  burden  of  the 
poem,  is  called  a  r^rain, 

39.    BmtNs's  Stakza. 

aa  ab  ah 

4i  "When  ripened    fields    and   azure 

skies, 

Call    forth    the   reaper's    rustling 

noise, 
I  saw  thee  leave  their  evening  joys,  • 

2  i  And  lonely  stalk, 

To  vent  thy  bosom's  swelling  rise 
In  pensive  walk."— ^«r«^. 

41. 

aahcch 
4i4-  "Two  spirits  reached  this  world  of 
ours: 
The  lightning's  locomotive  powers 

3  i  +  or  4^  Were  slow  to  their  agility : 

In  broad  daylight   they  moved 

incog.. 
Enjoying,  withovlt  mist  or  fog, 
Entire  invisibility." 

Campbell. 

43, 

a  a  ah 
4i  "  When  maidens  siich  as  Hdster  die. 
Their  place  ye  may  not  well  supply, 
Thousfh  ye  among"  a  thousand  try, 
2i+  With  v4in  enddavor." 

Lamb. 

44. 

4  i  "  By  torch  and  tr\impet  fast  arrayed. 

Each  horseman    drew   his  battle- 
blade, 
^f     And  fiirious  ^s^rf  ch&rger  n^ighei 
• »  +  To  join  the  dreadful  revelry." 


'vawnff^ 


I  35. 

ah  ch 
4  i  "All  thoughts,   all  passions,  411  de- 
lights. 
Whatever  stirs  this  mortal  frame, 
Are  all  but  ministers  of  love, 
3i  And  feed  his  sacred  flame." 

Coleridge. 
37. 
4/    "  <5h,  never  talk  again  to  m6 
4  i  +        Of  northern  climes  and  British 
ladies ; 
It  has  not  been  your  lot  to  see, 
Like  me,  the  charming  girl  of 
Cadiz." — Byron. 
38. 
ah  c  ch 
Aii  "To  horse!  to  horse!  the  standard 

flies, 
3  i  The  bugles  sound  the  c&ll ; 

The  Gallic  navy  stems  the  seas. 
The  voice  of  battle  's  on  the  breeze, — 
Arouse  ye,  one  and  all !" — Soott. 
40. 
ab  ah  c  G 
4 1  "  You  have  the  Pyrrhic  dance  ns  ydt, 
4/        Where  is  the  Pyrrhic  phalanx 
gone? 
Of  two  such  lessons  why  forget 
The  nobler  and  the  manlifer  6ne  ? 
4i  You  have  the  letters  Cadmus  gave — 
Think    you   he    meant  them  for  a 
slave  V— Byron. 


42. 


4i  + 


Thou  art  not  fals3,  but  thou  art 
fickle, 
4  i  To  those  thyself  so  fondly  sought ; 

The  tears  that  thou  hast  forced  to 
trickle. 
Are    doubly    bitter   from   that 
thought : 
4t+  'Tis  this  whitih  breaks  the  he4rt 
thou  grievest, — 
Too  well   thou   lov'st,    too   soon 
thou  leavest." — Byron. 
45. 
aah  c  c  ch 
4/  "  Thou  grewest  &  goodly  trde,  with 
shoots  [roots 

4/     Fanning,  thg  sky,  and  darth-bound 
2iJr        So  grappled  linder, 
4  i "  That  thou,  whom  perching  birds 
could  swing. 
And  zephyrs   roct    with  lightest 

wing. 
From   thy   firm   trunk   unmoved 
didst  fling 
2/4-        Tempest  ^nd  thunder." 

Magazine:  Charter-oak. 
Observe  how  the  change  of  feet  in  the 
last  line,  improves  the  vigor  of  the  stanza. 


V15R8IFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC    VERSE.  288 

46. 

aabb  c 
4  i  "  His  br6w  vraa  sad  •  his  eye  beneath 

Flashed  like  a  falchion  from  its  sheath  ; 
4/  And  like  a  silver  clarion  r&ng 

The  accents  of  that  mountain  tongue, 
»*+  or  2  4  Excelsior  V^—ZonsfeUmo. 

47. 

a  abb  e  c,  &c. 

4/  "  Swift  to  the  breach  his  comrades  fly, — 

4  i  '  Make  way  for  liberty  !'  they  cry, 

And  throiigh  the  Austrian  phalanx  dart 

As  rushed  the  spears  through  Arnold's  heart ; 

While,  instantaneous  as  his  fall, 

Kout,  ruin,  panic,  seized  them  kll." — Montgomery. 

4  *  +  "  The  tiirkman  Iky  beside  the  river ; 

The  wind  played  loose  through  bow  and  quiver; 

4  *  The  charger  on  the  bank  fed  fr^e : 

4/  The  shield  hung  glittering  from  the  tr^e.  *  *  * 

Wild  burst  the  burning  element 

O'er  man  and  courser,  flood  and  tent ! 

And  through  the  blaze  the  Greeks  outsprang, 

Like  tigers, — bloody,  foot  and  fang  1 

With  dagger-stab  and  falchion-sweep. 
Delving  the  stunned  and  staggering  n^ap, 

Till  lay  the  slave  by  chief  and  Khan, 

And  all  was  gone  that  once  was  man  1" — Groli/. 
The  iambic  tetrameter  is  a  sprightly,  vigorous  measure,  in  which  much  of  our 
poetry  is  written.    See  Scott,  Byron,  Moore,  Butler,  Swift,  Gay,  Mrs.  Hemans. 

48. 

ab  ah 
3/  *'  Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall, 

6/  AudJELowers  to  wither  at  the  north-wind's  breath, 

8  i  And  stars  to  s6t ;  but  all — 

5/  Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  Oh  Death  V— Hemans. 

40. 

ababcc 
3/  "  'Tis  sweet,  in  thg  green  spring 

5/  To  gaze  upon  the  wakgning  fluids  aroiind ; 

Birds  in  the  thicket  sing, 

5  i  Winds  whisper,  waters  prattle  from  the  ground ; 
8  »  A  thousand  odors  rise, 

Breathed  up  from  blossoms  of  a  thousand  djQS.^''— Bryant. 

50. 

abhacc 
8/  "Ah !  thSre  's  a  deathless  name  !— 

5/  A  spirit  that  the  smothgring  vault  shall  spurn, 

5  i  And  like  a  steadfast  planet  mount  and  burn— 

Si  And  though  its  crown  of  flame 

5  i  +  Consumed  my  brain  to  ashes  as  it  won  me. 

By  all  the  fiery  stars  I  I'd  pluck  it  on  me !"—  WiUis. 

51. 

ab  ab 
5/  "  We  mourn  for  th6e  when  blind  blank  night 

2  i  The  chkmber  fills  ; 

6  i  We  pine  for  thee  when  morn's  first  light 
2/  EMdSns  thS  hiUs." 

13 


284  VERSIFICATION. — SCANNING. IAMBIC    VERSE. 


abba 
5  4  "A  long  way  off  Lucinda  strikes  the  men  ; 

2/  As  shS  draws  near, 

2  i  And  one  sees  clear, — 

A  long  way  off  one  wishes  her  again." 

53, 

abab 
5f^  « It  is  the  Khine !  our  mountain  vineyards  laving ;    . 

Si  I  see  the  proud  flood  shine. 

Sing  on  the  march,  with  every  banner  waving, 
Sing,  brothers  1  'tis  the  Khine."— ifeman*. 

54.    • 

abab 
6/  "  Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way  ; 

4»  The  first  four  acts  already  passed, 

5  i  A  fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day  ; — 

Time's  noblest  offspring  is  the  last." — Berkeley. 

55,   Pentametees,  ok  Hekoic  MEAstntE.    5ior5i+. 

In  this  measure,  by  far  the  greatest  and  most  valuable  part  of  our  poetry  is 
^"  all  our  blanh  verse  and  epic  poetry,  and  all  our 


written.      It  comprises  nearly  all  our  blanh  verse  and  epic  ^ 

dramatic  poetry.     See  Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  "Milton,  Dryden,  Pope 

Thomson,  Cowper,  Pollok,  Eogers,  Byron,  Campbell,  Crab  be,  etc. 

Blmik. 
5f+  ♦«  The  p6et's  eye,  in  k  fine  frenzy  r611ing, 

Doth  glance  from  heaven  to  6arth,  from  ^arth  to  heaven  : 

And,  as  imagination  bodies  forth 
6*  The  forms  of  things  unknown,  the  poet's  p6n 

Turns  them  to  shape,  and  gives  to  airy  nothing 

A  local  habitation  and  a  name." — Shakespeare. 

"  Yet,  higher  than  their  tops 
5/  The  v^rdiiroils  walls  of  Paradise  upspning. 

Which  to  our  general  sire  gave- prospect  large, 
6/1  Into  his  ndther  Empire  neighboring  round. 

5  *  And  higher  than  that  wall,  a  circling  row 

Of  goodliest  tr^es,  16ad§n  with  fairest  friiit, 
Blossoms  a,nd  friiits  at  once  of  golden  hue. 
Appeared,  with  gay  enamelled  colors  mixed  ; 
Of  which  the  sun  more  glad  impressed  his  beams 
Than  in  fair  evening  cloud,  or  humid  bow. 
When  God  hath  showered  earth." — Milton. 

a  abb  cc  d  d,  &c. 
5/  "  Oh  1  had  he  be^n  content  to  serve  the  crown. 

With  virtues  proper  only  for  the  gown  ; 
Or  had  the  rankness  of  the  soil  been  freed, 
From  cockle  that  oppressed  the  noble  seed ; 
D4vid  for  Mm  his  tuneful  harp  had  strung. 
And  h6aven  had  wanted  6ne  immortal  song." — Dryden. 

56,    Elegiac  Stanza. 
abab 

6  i  "  The  br6ezv  c411  of  iBcense-br^athing  m6rn. 

The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  8h6d, 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn. 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed." — Oroff. 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. — IAMBIC    VERSE.  286 

57. 

6  i  +  "  For  thou  wast  monarch  bom.    Tradition's  pages 

6  i  TeJl  not  the  planting  of  thy  forest  tree, 

But  that  the  forest  tribes  have  bent  for  ages 
♦  To  thee,  ana  to  thy  sires,  the  subject  knee." — HaUeck. 

58. 
bf  "  Harp  of  the  North,  farewell !  the  hills  grow  dark, 

6  i  On  purple  p^aks  a  deeper  shade  descending ; 

In  twilight  copse  the  glowworm  lights  her  spark. 
The  deer  half-seen  are  to  the  covert  wending." — Scott. 

59. 

6»+  " Philosophers  may  teach  thy  whereabouts  and  nature ; 

6  »  +  But  wise,  as  all  of  us,  perforce,  must  think  'em. 

The  schoolboy  best  has  fixed  thy  nomenclature  : 
And  poets,  too,  must  call  thee  Bob-o-linkum." — Hoffman. 

60. 

ah  ah  c  c 
5  i  +  "  And  th6ti  hast  walked  about — how  strange  a  story — 

Si  In  Th^bes's  streets,  three  thousand  y^ars  ago ; 

Wh^n  th6  Memnoniiim  was  in  all  its  glory, 

And  time  had  not  begun  to  overthrow 
Those  monuments  and  piles  stupendous. 
Of  which  the  very  ruins  are  tremendous." — H.  Smith. 

61.  Btkon's  Stanza. 
ah  ah  ah  c  c 
5  *  +  "  0,that  I  had  the  art  of  easy  writing. 

What  should  be  easy  reading !  could  I  scale 
Parnassus,  where  the  Muses  sit  inditing 

Those  pretty  poems  never  known  to  tail. 
How  quickly  would  I  print  (the  world  delighting) 

A  Grecian,  Syrian,  or  Assyrian  tale  ; 
And  sell  you,  mixed  with  Western  sentimentalism. 
Some  samples  of  the  finest  orientalism." — Byron. 

When  iambic  hypermeters  of  moderate  length  occur  only  now  and  then  in  the 
poem,  they  are  more  commonly  humorous  than  serious. 

62.    The  Sonnet. 
ahh  a  a  c  c  a  de  e dff 
Hi  «  And  canst  thou.  Mother,  for  a  moment  think 

That  we,  thy  children,  when  old  age  shall  shed 

Its  blanching  honors  on  thy  weary  head. 
Could  from  our  best  of  duties  ever  shrink  ? 
Sooner  the  sun  from  his  high  sphere  should  sink, 

Than  w6,  ungrateful,  l^ave  tliee  in  that  day, 

To  pine  in  solitude  tliy  life  away. 
Or  shun  thee  tottering  on  the  grave's  cold  brink. 
Banish  the  thought ! — where'er  our  steps  may  roam, 

O'er  smiling  plains,  or  wastes  without  a  tree. 

Still  will  foncl  memory  point  our  hearts  to  thee, 
And  paint  the  pleasures  of  thjr  peaceful  home  ; 
While  duty  bids  us  all  thy  griels  assuage. 
And  smooth  the  pillow  of  thy  sinking  age." — H.  K.  White. 

63.  Spenserian  Stanza. 
ah  ahhchcc 
Ci  "  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  w6od8, 

There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore, 
There  is  society,  where  noua  intrudes, 


99$  VSBSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC    VERSE. 

By  the  deep  sea,  and  music  in  its  roar. 

I  love  not  Man  the  less,  but  Nature  more, 
From  these  our  interviews,  in  which  I  steal 

From  all  I  may  be,  or  have  been  before, 
To  mingle  with  the  universe,  and  feel 
f  i  What  1  can  ne'er  express,  |  yet  can  not  all  conceal." — Byron. 

An  iambic  hexameter  is  usually  called  an  Alexandrine. 

64. 

a  abb 
6  i       "  The  d^w  was  falling  fast,  |  the  stars  began  to  blink,— 

I  heard  a  voice ;  it  said,  j  '  Drink,  pretty  creature,  drink !' 
And  looking  o'er  the  hedge,  j  before  me  I  espied 
6/  A  snow-white  mountain  lamb  j  with  a  maiden  at  its  side." —  W&rdsworth. 

65. 

ab  ab  c  c 

6  i  "  For  4ges,  on  the  silent  forest  here, 

Thy  beams  did  fall  before  the  red  man  came 
To  dwell  beneath  them ;  in  their  shade  the  deer 

Fed  and  feared  not  the  arrow's  deadly  aim. 
Nor  tree  was  felled,  |  in  all  that  world  of  woods, 
6i  Save  by  the  beaver's  tooth,  |  or  winds,  or  rush  of  floods." — Bryant. 

66. 

a  abb 
6/    •*  I  s^e  the  valleys,  Spain  !  ]  where  thy  mighty  rivers  run. 

And  thg  hills  that  lift  thy  harvests  |  and  vineyards  to  the  sun,        ^ 
And  the  flocks  that  drink  thy  brooKs  |  and  sprinkle  all  the  green, 
7/       Where  lie  thy  plains,  |  with  sheep-walks  seamed,  |  and  olive  shades 

[between." — Bryant 

67.    Lines  Divisiblb. 

7  *    "  The  melancholy  days  are  come,  [  The  saddest  of  the  y^ar, 

Of  wailing  winds  and  naked  woods,  |  And  meadows  brown  and  sear." 

Bryant. 

7*    "0,  bdtter  that  her  shattered  hiilk  |  Should  sink  beneath  the  w^ve  1 

Her  thunder  shook  the  mighty  deep,  |  And  there  should  be  her  grave  I 

Nail  to  th6  mast  her  holy  flag, — set  every  threadbare  sail. 

And  give  her  to  the  god  of  storms, —  [  the  lightning  and  the  gale  1 " 

Holmes. 
68.* 

7/+    "  No ; — the  joke  has  been  a  good  one,  |  But  I'm  getting  fond  of  quiet ; 
And  I  don't  like  deviations  |  from  my  customary  diet ; 
So  I  think  1  will  not  go  with  you  |  to  hear  the  toasts  and  speeches. 
But  stick  to  old  Montgomery  Place,  |  and  have  some  pig  and  peaches." 

Jlolmes. 
"  Fkthfir  &nd  I  went  down  to  town  |  Along  with  Captain  Gooding, 
And  th6re  we  s6e  the  mdn  and  boys  |  As  thick  as  hasty  pudding." 

Dr.  Shackburg :  Yankee  Boodle. 

The  quantity  of  iambic  verse  in  English  literature,  far  exceeds  that  of  all  the 
other  kinds  of  verse. 

♦  There  Is  also  a  sort  of  dof?gerel  stanza,  usually  iambic,  ending  with  a  long  prosy  line,  and 
frequently  found  in  newspapers ;  as, — 

"Now  Eedben  wds  a  nice  young  mkn 
As  kny  in  the.  t6wn  ; 
And  Phoebe  loved  him  very  dear, 
But,  on  account  of  his  being  obliged  to  work  for  a  living,  he 
never  could  make  himself  agreeable  to  old  Mr.  and  Mis.  Brown. 


YBRSIFICATION. SCANNING. — ANAPESTIC    VERSE. 


2Q1 


2.   ANAPESTIC   VERSE. 


1. 

abab 

"  Move  your  feet 
To  our  soiind, 
Whilst  we  greet 
AU  the  ground."- 

Or,  tc    Move  your  feet 
To  our  sound, 
Whilst  we  greet 
-Fletcher.      AU  the  ground. 

Or,d    M6ve  your  feet 
To  our  sound, 
Whilst  we  greet 
All  the  ground 

2/ 


a  + 


2/+ 
2a  + 


abacdb  dc 

'  Now,  mortal,  prepare, 

For  thy  fate  is  at  hand ; 
Now,  mortal,  prepare, 

And  surrender. 
For  Love  shall  arise. 

Whom  no  pow'r  can  withstand, 
Who  rules  from  the  skies 
To  the  centre." — Granville. 

ab  al 
The  aiitumn  winds  rushing 

Waft  the  leaves  that  are  searest ; 
But  our  flow'r  was  in  flushing. 
When  blighting  was  nearest. 
Scott. 


a  ab  c  ch 
2  a    "  Come,  my  mates,  let  us  work, 

And  all  hands  to  the  fork, 
8  a  While  the  sun  shines,  our  haycocks 

to  make : 
2/       So  fine  is  the  day, 

And  so  fragrant  the  hay. 
That  the  meadow 's  as  blithe  as  the 
wake." — Smart. 


ab  ab  c  c  dede 
2a"  When,  in  rage,  he  came  th^re, 
2/         Beholding  how  steep 
2/     The  sides  did  appear. 

And  the  bottom  how  d4ep ; 
2y4-  His  torments  projecting, 

And  sadly  reflecting, 
2  a  +  That  a  lover  forsaken, 
2/         A  n^w  love  may  g6t ; 

But  a  neck,  when  once  broken. 
Can  never  be  set,"  etc. —  Walsh, 
5, 
aahb 
a  "  Our  life  is  a  dr^am, 

2  a  Our  time,  as  a  stream, 

2/  Glides  swiftly  aw^y ; 

4  a  And  the  fugitive  m6ment  refuses  to 
[stay." —  Wesley. 
7. 
a  ah  bb 
"  Let  the  stupid  be  grave, 
'Tis  the  vice  of  the  slave; 
But  can  never  agree 
With  a  maiden  nke  me, 
4  a  Who  is  born  in  a  country  that  'a  happy 
and  free." 


8a 
8/ 


abab 
"  I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 

My  right  there  is  none  to  dispiite  ; 
From  the  centre  aU  round  to  the  sea, 
I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute.' 


-Gowper. 


Sa  + 
8a 


"  Though  the  day  of  my  d(Sstiny  's  over. 
And  the  star  of  my  fate  has  declined. 
Thy  soft  heart  refused  to  discover. 
The  faults  which  so  many  could  find.' 


-Byron, 


8  a  +  »  "  The  strawberries  grow  in  the  mowing.  Mill  May, 

8  a  And  the  bob-o-link  sings  on  the  tree  ; 

On  the  knolls  the  red  clover  is  growing.  Mill  May, 
Then  come  to  the  meadowa  with  me." — Eastman. 


8/ 
4a  + 
aa 


11. 

■  How  fS,iT  is  the  rose !  what  a  beaiitiful  flower  I 
The  glory  of  A'pril  and  May  ! 
But  the  leaves  are  beginning  to  fade  in  an  hour, 
And  they  wither  and  die  m  a  day." —  Wattt. 


'Siffi  VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. ANAPESTIC    VERSE. 

13, 

ab  abb 
Zf  "ToKiches?    Alas!  'tis  in  vain; 

3/  Who  hid  in  their  turns  have  been  hid  ; 

Their  treasures  are  squandered  again  ; 
A/  And  here  in  the  grave  are  all  metals  forbid 

4  a  Save  the  tinsel  that  shines  on  the  dark  coflan-lid." — Knowlea, 

13. 

ab  ab  c  c 
Zf  "  The  music  of  stream  and  of  bird 

8  a  Shall  come  back  when  the  winter  is  o'er ; 

4  a  But  the  voice  that  was  dearest  to  us,  shall  be  h^ard 

In  our  desolate  chambers  no  more  ! 
if  The  siinlight  of  May  on  the  waters  shall  quiver — 

4a  But  the  light  of  her  eye  hath  departed  forever !" — Burdell. 

14. 

aabb 
4  a  "When  the  flowers  of  friendship  or  love  have  decayed 

In  the  heart  that  has  trusted  and  once  been  betrayed, 
4if  No  siinshine  of  kindness  their  bloom  can  restore  : 

"For  the  verdure  of  feeUng  wiU  quicken  no  more  V^—Eoffman, 

4a  +        "  So  I  h6pe,  from  henceforward  vou  ne'er  will  ask,  can  I  maul 

4/+  This  teasing,  conceited,  rude,  insolent  animal. 

And  if  tliis  rebuke  might  be  turned  to  his  benefit, 

(For  I  pity  the  man,)  I  should  be  glad  th6n  otit:'— Swift. 

ab  a  ab 
4/  "A  warrior  so  bold,  and  a  virgin  so  bright, 

Zf  Conversed  as  they  sat  on  die  green ; 

They  gazed  on  each  other  with  tender  delight, — 
Alonzo  the  Brave  was  the  name  of  the  knight, 
The  maid — ^was  the  fair  Imogene." — Le%m. 


aabb  c  c  dde  e 
Zf+  ■  "  A  bre&th  of  submission  we  breathe  not ; 

The  sword  that  we've  drawn  we  wiU  sheathe  not ; 
4/  Its  scabbard  is  16ft  where  our  martyrs  are  laid, 

And  the  vengeance  of  ages  has  whetted  its  blade. 
8a  +  Earth  may  hide,  waves  ingulf,  fire  consume  us  ; 

But  they  shall  not  to  slavery  doom  us  : 
4a  If  they  rule,  it  shall  be  o'er  our  ashes  and  graves  ; 

But  we've  smote  them  already  with  fire  on  the  waves, 
8  a+  And  new  triumphs  on  land  are  before  us  ; 

To  the  charge  I — Heaven's  banner  is  o'er  us." — Ga/mphell. 


ab  ab 
ia+       "  When  the  bl&ck-lettered  list  to  the  gods  Avas  presented, 
4/  (Th6  list  of  what  Fate  for  each  mortal  intends,) 

At  the  long  string  of  ills  a  kind  goddess  relented. 

And  slipped  in  three  blessings — wife,  children,  and  friends." 

Spene«r, 
17. 
4a  "  Should  the  tdmpest  of  war  oversh&dow  our  14nd, 

4/+  Its  b61t8  could  ne'er  rdnd  Freedom's  temple  asunder ; 

For  unmoved  at  its  portals  would  Washington  stand, 
And  repulse  with  liia  breast  the  assaults  of  the  thunder." — Paints 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. TROCHAIC    VKRSK. 


289 


4a  + 
4a  + 


4/ 


18. 

ahah  c  ccb 

"When  a  prince  to  the  fate  of  the  peasant  has  yielded. 
The  tap'stry  waves  dark  round  the  dim-liffhted  hall ; 

With  'scutcheons  of  silver  the  coffin  is  shielded, 
And  p^ges  stand  mute  by  the  canopied  pall : 

Through  the  c6urts,  at  deep  midnight,  the  torches  are  gl6amii^ ; 

In  the  proudly-arched  chapel  the  banners  are  beaming ; 

Far  adown  the  long  isle  sacred  music  is  streaming, 
Lamenting  a  chief  of  the  people  should  fell." — Scott. 

19,    Lines  Divisible. 
ahah 

"  The  captive  usurper,  [  Hurled  down  from  the  thr6ne, 
Lay  buried  in  torpor,  |  Forgotten  and  lone." — Byron. 


3.  TROCHAIC  VERSE. 


aalhc 

t  Turning, 

Burning, 

Chinking, 

Eangmg, 
Ztc       "  FiiU  of  gri6f  and  fiiU  of  pMn." 
Addison, 

3. 

aalcch 

2t  "  'Tis  most  certain, 

By  their  flirting, 
Stc    W6men  have  most  envy  shown  ; 

Pleased  to  ruin 

Others'  wooing. 
Never  happy  in  their  own." 

5. 

aa  ai  c  c  cl) 

2t       "  Clear  wells  spring  not, 

Sw6et  birds  sing  not, 

Loud  bells  ring  not 
d  Cheerfully ; 

Herds  stand  weeping, 

Flocks  all  sleeping, 

Nymphs  back  creeping 

YearMly. ^^—Shake^eare. 


8  f  tf  "  Woo  the  fair  one,  wh^n  aro^d 
8 1  E4rly  birds  are  singing ; 

When  o'er  all  the  fragrant  ground 
Early  herbs  are  springing." 

Bryant. 


a  a  lice,  &c. 
t  c  "  S6e  him  stride 

Valleys  wide, 

Over  woods. 

Over  floods ; 

So  shall  I 
Ztc  (Lofty  p6et !)  toiichthe  sky." — S^Dift. 

4. 

al  ch 

'■  Whizzing  through  the  moiintains. 

Buzzing  o'er  the  vale  ; 
Bless  me  I  this  is  pleasant. 

Biding  on  a  rail." — /Saxe. 

6. 

ab  al 

*'  Can  I  c^ase  to  care, 

C4n  I  cdase  to  languish, 
While  my  darhng  fair 
Is  6n  the  coiich  of  anguish  ?'* 
Burns. 

7, 

4:t    "Th6ugh  we  charge   to-day  with 

fl^etness, 
Ztc       Th6ugh  we  dread  to-m6rrow'8 
sky. 
There 's  a  melancholy  sweetness 
In  the  name  of  days  gone  by." 

Tvj>per, 

9, 

"  Hiisband,  hiSsband,  c^aBeyour  strife, 
7/    Nor  longer  idly  rave,  sir ; 

Though  I  km  your  wedded  wife, 
7/    Y6t  I'm  n6t  your  slave,  sir."— Burnt. 


2tc 


2tc 

Bt 

6/ 


290^ 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. TROCHAIC    VlflRSE. 


10. 

8  ^  c  *'  Now  the  pine-tree's  waving  top 
Btc        _  Gently  greets  the  morning  gale : 
Kidliugs  now  begin  to  crop 
Daisies  in  the  dewy  vale." 

Cunningham. 

13. 

At    "  QkW  not  this  the  month  of  roses — 
2tc        There  are  none  to  bloom  ; 

Morning  light,  alas  !  discloses 
8  t  c       But  the  winter  of  the  tomb." 


Ztc 


Ztc 

4t 


2to 


13. 

aaabccob,  &e. 
•  Scots  who  have  with  Wallace  bled. 
Scots  whom  Bruce  has  often  led, 
Welcome  to  the  gory  bed, 

a\ntr\rv  " 


Compare 


Or  to  victory." — 
t  c  with  4  *. 


15. 

aabhc  c,  &o. 


3^c  "It  shall  come  in 


empire's  groans, 


Burning  temples,  trampled  thrones  ! 
Then,  Ambition,  rue  thy  lust. — 
Earth  to  earth !  and  dust  to  dust  1" 
Groli/. 
17. 
ababc  do  d 
4«  "  In  the  greenest  of  our  valleys 
8  to       By  good  angels  tenanted. 
Once  a  fair  and  stately  palace 
(Snow-white  palace)  reared  its  head ; 
In  the  monarch  Thought's  dominion, 

It  stood  there ; 
Never  seraph  spread  a  pinion 
Over  fabric  half  so  fair  " — Foe. 


19. 

ab  ab  0  0 

"P6et6ftheheart, 
Delving  in  its  mine. 
From  mankind  apart. 

Yet  where  jewels  shine ; 
Hdaving  Upwards  to  the  light. 
Precious  wealth  that  charms  the 
Bight."— Zoo/{;e. 

30. 

"  H6  that  loves  a  rosy  chfiek, 
Or  a  coral  lip  admires. 
Or  from  starlike  eyes  doth  seek 

Fuel  to  maintain'his  fires  ; 
As  old  time  makes  these  decay 
So  his  flames  must  melt  away'.'' 
Ciirew. 


3t 

2to 

3/ 


'■2to 
Ztc 


Zt 


Ue 


Sto 


ite 


4:t 


11. 

'  Soldier,  rest !  thy  warfare  o'er. 
Sleep  the  sleep  that  knows  not 
breaking- 
Dream  of  battle-fields  no  more, 
Days  of  danger,  nights  of  wak- 
ing."—>&o^^. 


a  a  ab  0  cb 

"  Oft  as  summer  closes. 
When  thine  eye  reposes 
On  its  lingering  roses, 

Once  so  loved  by  thee, 
Think  of  her  who  wove  them. 
Her  who  made  thee  love  them  ; 
Oh  !  then  remember  me." 

Moore. 

16. 

a  a  ab  refrain 

"  Whdn  the  Alhambra  walls  he 
gained. 
On  the  moment  he  ordained 
That  the  trumpet  straight  should 

sound 
With  the  silver  clarion  round. 
Wo  is  me,  Alhama !" 

Byron. 

18. 

ab  a  aab  00  d  d 

"  In  a  valley  thkt  I  know, 
Happy  scene ! 
There    are    meadows   sloping 

low, 
There  the  fairest  flowers  blow. 
And  the  brightest  waters  flow, 

All  serene ; 
But  the  sweetest  thing  to  see. 
If  you  ask  the  dripping  tree. 
Or  the  harvest-hoping  swain, 
Is  the  rain." — Hoyt. 


ai. 

aabb 

"  Sde  the  ruddy  morning  smiling. 
Hear  the  grove  to  bliss  beguiling  ; 
Zephyrs    through    the   woodland 

playing. 
Streams  along  the  valleys  stray- 
ing."—(?oZc?smi^A. 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. TROCHAIC    VERSE. 


291 


a  a  ah  ah 
4  <  "  N6ver  -wadding,  ever  wooing, 
Still  a  lovelorn  heart  pursuing, 
Eead   you  not  the  wrong  you're 
doing, 
itc         In  my  cheek's  pale  hue  ? 

All  my  life  with  sorrow  strewing, — 
Wed  or  cease  to  woo." 

CarwpbeU. 


Uc 


6t 

4te 


13. 

ab  ccah  ab 

4:t    "  Ah  !  my  heart  is  ever  waiting, 
2tc  Waitmg  for  the  May, — 

Waiting  for  the  pleasant  rambles 
Where    the    fragrant     hawthorn 

brambles. 
With  the  woodbine  alternating, 

Scent  the  dewy  way. 
Ah  1  mj  heart  is  weary  waiting, 
Waitmg  for  the  May." 

Dublin  Magazine. 


34. 

aabb 

"  Then,  methought,  I  heard  a  hollow  sound, 
Gathering  lip  from  all  the  lower  ground ; 
Narrowing  in  to  where  they  sat  assembled. 
Low  vcttiiptuous  music,  winding,  trembled." — Tennyson. 

25. 

ab  ab 

"  Moiintain-winds  !  oh !  whither  do  ye  c^ll  me, 
Vainly,  vainly,  would  my  steps  pursue  : 
Chains  of  care  to  lower  earth  enthrall  me, — 
Wherefore  thus  my  weary  spirit  woo." — Bemans. 


tt 


It 


i36.  Lines  Divisible. 
a  a,  &e. 

"  Wh6re  the  wood  is  waving,  |  Steady, gr(5en,  and  high, 
Fauns  and  dryads,  nightly,  ]  Watch  the  starry  sky." 

27. 

abab 

"  tTp  the  d^wy  m6untain,  J  Health  is  bounding  lightly ; 
On  her  brow  a  garland,  |  twined  with  richest  posies  : 
Gay  is  she,  |  elate  with  hope,  \  and  smiling  sprightly ; 
Kedder  is  her  cheek  |  and  sweeter  than  the  rose  is." — G.  Brown, 

aabb,  &c. 

"Th^n  in  th^e  let  those  rejoice,  |  who  seek  thee,  s61f-denying, 
All  who  thy  salvation  love,  |  thy  name  be  glorifying." 


7tc  "  Come,  and  tell  us,  our  Ximena.  |  looking  northward  far  away 

O'er  the  camp  of  the  invaders,  (  o'er  the  Mexican  array. ^^—Whittier. 

"Softly  blow  the  dvening  breezes,  |  Softly  fall  the  dews  of  night : 
Yonder  walks  the  Moor  Alcanzor,  |  Shunning  every  glare  of  lighV— Percy. 

30. 

8  <  "  Bdams  of  n6on,  like  burning  lances,  |  through  the  trde-tops  fl4sh  8Jad 

glisten 
As  she  stands  before  her  lover  |  with  raised  eyes  to  look  and  listen.'* 

Whitii0r» 
13* 


292 


\  ERSIFIC ATION. SCANNING. — DACTYLIC    VERSE. 


4.   DACTYLIC  YERSE. 

Our  literature  has  but  little  regular  or  pure  dactylic  verse. 


a  a  ah 

2d    "  L&nd  of  the  Pilgrim's  pride, 
Land  where  my  fathers  died, 
From  ev'ry  mountain-side 

2  »  Let  freedom  ring." — Smith. 

3. 

a  a  ab  c  c  ch 

2  </    *'  Bright  in  her  father's  hall 

Shields  gleamed  upon  the  wall, 
Loud  sang  the  minstrels  all, 

d  t  Chanting  his  glory  ; 

"When  of  old  Hildebrand 
I  asked  his  daughter's  hand, 
Mute  did  the  minstrel  stand 

2  i+or  dt    To  hear  my  story." 


aa  ah 
'id  " Free  from  satiety 

Care  and  anxiety, 
Charms  in  variety, 
d  e  Fall  to  Ms  share." 

4. 

ah  ah 
2  d    "Take  her  up  tenderly, 
d  c  Lift  her  with  care ; 

Fashioned  so  slenderly. 
Young,  and  so  lair !" — Hood. 


2d    "  Where  shall  the  lover  rest, 
d  t  Whom  the  fates  8(Jver 

From  his  true  maiden's  breast- 
Parted  forever." — Scott. 


Zde 


2dto 
2dt 


a  ah  c  ch 
"  Bird  of  the  wilderness, 
Blithesome  and  cumberless, 
Light  be  thy  matin  o'er  moorland  and  lea  ; 
Emblem  of  happiness. 
Blest  is  thy  dwelling-place — 
0,  to  abide  in  the  desert  with  thee  !" — Hogg. 

7. 

ahah 
"  C6me  from  the  mount  of  the  leopard,  spouse, 
C6me  from  the  den  of  the  lion ; 
Come  to  the  tent  of  thy  shepherd,  spouse, 
Como  to  the  mountain  of  Zion." — G.  Brecon. 


aaah  c  cch 
Zd  "  B6v8  will  anticipate,  |  lavish,  and  dissipate 

Zde  All  that  your  busy  pate  I  hoarded  with  care  ; 

And,  in  their  foolishness^  |  passion,  and  mulishness, 
Charge  you  with  churlishness,  |  spurning  your  prayer. 


aaah  occh 
Zdt  "  Paiise  not  to  dr6am  of  the  future  before  us  ; 

Pause  not  to  weep  the  wild  cares  that  come  o'er  us  ; 
Hark,  how  Creation's  deep,  musical  chorus, 
ijnintermitting,  goes  ;ip  into  heaven  I 
N6ver  the  ocean-wave  falters  in  flowing ; 
Never  the  little  seed  stops  in  its  growing ; 
More  and  more  richly  the  rose-heart  keeps  glowmg, 
Till  from  its  nourisliing  stem  it  is  riven." — Osgood. 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. — COMPOSITE    VERSE.  293 

10,    LmE9  Divisible. 
a  ahh 
Sdt  "  See,  in  his  waywardness,  How  his  fist  doiibles  ; 

Thus  pugilistical,  daring  Hfe's  troubles  : 
Strange,  that  the  neophyte  enters  existence, 
In  such  an  attitude,  feigning  resistance." — Ebod. 
11 
a  abb,  &c. 
4  c?  c      "  Often  had  moiintain-side,  moiintain-side,  br6ad  lake  and  stream. 

Gleamed  on  my  waking  thought,  waking  thought,  crowded  my  dream." 

12. 

ah  aic  c  d  e  e  d 
Sdt  "  Gr6en  be  the  graves  where  her  martyrs  are  lying  ! 

Zdc  Shroudless  and  tombless  they  sunk  to  their  rest, 

While  o'er  their  ashes  the  starry  fold  flying 
Wrapt  the  proud  eagle  they  roused  from  his  nest. 
2  d  Borne  on  her  northern  pine, 

Long  o'er  the  foaming  brine 
Spread  her  broad  banner  to  storm  and  to  sun ; 
Heav'n  keep  her  ever  free. 
Wide  as  o'er  land  and  sea 
Floats  the  fair  emblem  her  heroes  have  won." — Eolmes. 

13,    Lines  Divisible. 
ah  ab 
6dt    "  Time,  thou  art  6ver  in  motion  1  On  wheels  of  the  days,  years,  and  ages ; 
Restless  as  waves  of  the  ocean,  |  when  Earns  or  Boreas  rages." 

(r.  Brown's  Gram. 
14. 
aabh 
Id    "  Oiit  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  shall  be  gathered,  by  &ngels  o'er  Satan 
victorious. 
All  that  offendeth,  that  lieth,  that  faileth  to  honor  his  name  ever  glorious." 

Ih. 
15. 
7dc  ^^  Nimrod  the  hunter  was  mighty  in  hunting,  and  fumed  as  the  niler  of  cities 
of  yore; 
Babel,  and  Erech,  and  Accad,  and  Calneh,  from  Shinar's  fair  region  his 
name  afar  bore." — 3. 

5.   COMPOSITE   YERSE. 

Iambics  and  Anapests. 
1.  3. 

**  Our  fr^e  fl&g  is  dancing  "  With  a  laugh  and  song  we  glide  al6ng, 

In  the  free  mountain  air,  Across  the  fleeting  snow ; 

And  burnished  arms  are  glancing.  With  fri(5nds  beside,  how  switit  we  ride 

And  warriors  gathering  there."  On  the  beautiful  track  below." 

Bryant.  Fidda. 

Throughout  this  composite  verse,  show  what  feet  compose  each  of  the  lines. 
3. 
"  We  biiried  him  darkly,  at  dead  of  night. 
The  sods  with  our  bayonets  tiirning ; 
By  the  striiggling  moonbeams'  misty  licrht. 
And  the  lantern  dimly  burning."—  Wolfe. 

"  'Twas  the  battle-fi^ld  ;  and  the  cold,  pale  moon 
Looked  down  on  the  dead  and  dving ; 
And  the  wind  passed  6'er  with  a  dirge  and  a  wail. 
Where  the  young  and  brave  were  lying." — Landon. 


294  VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. COMPOSITE    VERSE. 

4. 

"I  know  where  the  yoiing  May  violet  grows, 

In  its  lone  and  lowly  nook ; 
On  its  mossy  bank,  where  the  large  tree  throws 
Its  broad  dark  boughs,  in  solemn  repose, 

Far  over  the  silver  brook." — Bryant. 

5. 

"  Thy  heart  was  a  river  |  Without  a  main — 
Would  I  had  loved  thee  never,  |  Florence  Vane." — Penaileton  Gooke. 

6. 

"  There  was  once  a  little  fbuntain  I  That  flowed  away  unseen 
In  the  bosom  of  a  mountain,  |  Where  man  had  nevei  been." — G.  Young. 

7. 
"  Let  us  go,  lassie,  go  to  the  braes  of  Balq  uhither. 
Where  the  blae-berries  grow  'mong  the  bonny  highland  heather." — TannaWl. 

8.  ' 

*'  0,  the  61d,  old  cloclc,  of  the  household  stock,  |  Was  the  brightest  thing  and  neatest ; 

The  hands,  though  old,  had  a  touch  of  gold,]  And  its  chime  rang  still  the  sweetest." 

9. 

"  It  was  many  and  many  a  year  ago,  I  In  a  kingdom  by  the  sea. 
That  a  maiden  there  lived  whom  you  may  know,  |  By  the  name  of  Annabal  L^e  : 
And  this  maiden  she  lived  with  no  other  thought  |  Than  to  love  and  be  loved 
by  me." — Poe. 

All  the  Feet. 
10.  11. 

"  Night  sinks  on  the  wave  ;  "  66  where  glory  waits  thee, 

Hollow  gusts  are  sighing ;  But  when  fame  elates  thee. 

Sea-birds,  to  their  cave.  Oh !  still  remember  me,"  etc. 

Through  the  gloom  are  flying." — Eemans.  Moore. 

13.  13. 

"  It  is  written  on  the  rose,  "  The  departed !  the  departed  ! 

In  its  glory's  full  array, —  They  visit  lis  in  dreams ; 

Bead  what  those  buds  disclose —  And  they  glide  above  our  memories 

Passing  5. way." — Eemans.  Like  shadows  over  streams." 

14,  15. 

"  Oft  In  th5  stilly  nisrht,  "  G6ntle  and  lovely  form. 

Ere  sMmber's  chain  has  b6und  What  didst  thou  liere  ?"  &c. 
me. 

Fond  M6m6ry  brings  the  light  -16. 

Of  6ther  ddys  around  me ;  "  Ndar  the  lake  where  drooped  the  willow, 

The  smiles,  the  t^ars,  Long  time  ^go ; 

Of  boyhood's  years.  Where  the  rock  threw  back  the  billow 

The  words  of  love  then  spoken ;  Brighter  than  snow ; 

The  eyes  that  shone.  Dwelt  a  maid  beloved  and  cherished 

Now  dim  and  gone.  By  high  ^nd  low ; 

The  cheerful  hearts  now  broken."  But  with  autumn's  leaf  she  jjerished, 

Moore.  Long  time  ago." — Morris. 

ir. 

"  M&ny  &re  the  thmights  that  come  to  m6  I  In  ray  lonely  mxising ; 
Or  :        Many  &re  thfe  thoughts  th&t  come  to  rn6    in  mjr  lonel^  miising ; 

And  they  drift  so  8tr6,nge  and  swift,  |  Thdre  's  no  time  for  choosing 
Which  to  follow,  for  to  leave  any  seems  a  losing." — Cranch. 

18. 

"  M&rch—m&rch— march  I    Earth  gr6ans  as  they  tread  I 
Each  carries  a  skiill ;  going  down  to  the  d6ad.'" 


VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. COMPOSITE    VERSE.  295 

19. 

"  Kn6w  ye  the  land  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle 

Are  emblems  of  deeds  that  are  done  in  their  clime— 

Where  the  rage  of  the  vulture,  the  16  ve  of  the  turtle, 
Now  melt  into  softness,  now  madden  to  crime  ? 

Know  ye  the  land  of  the  cedar  and  vine, 

Where  the  flowers  ever  blossom,  the  beams  ever  shine,"  qIc— Byron, 

20. 

"  Busk  ye,  busk  ye,  ray  bonny,  bonny  bride, 
Busk  ye,  busk  ye,  my  winsome  marrow  I 
Busk  ye,  busk  ye,  my  bonny  bride, 
And  think  no  more  on  the  braes  of  Yknovfy— Hamilton, 

31. 

"  Wild  roved  an  Indian  girl,  I  Bright  Alfarata, 
Where  sweep  the  waters  |  Of  tne  blue  Juniata. 
Swift  as  an  antelope  |  Through  the  forest  going. 
Loose  were  her  j6tty  locks  |  In  wavy  tresses  flowing." 

33, 

"  Merrily  swinging  on  brier  and  weed. 
Near  to  the  nest  of  his  little  dame. 
Over  the  mountain-side  or  mead, 
Kobert  of  Lincoln  is  telling  his  n^me — 
B6b-o-link,  B6b-o-link ; 
Spink,  spank,  spink ; 
Snug  and  safe  is  that  nest  of  ours 
Hidden  among  the  summer  flowers. 
Chee,  chee,  chee  V'— Bryant. 

This  beautiful  stanza  is  remarkable  for  a  skillful  combination  of  nearly  all 
the  feet. 

Many  songs  are  composite  in  their  versification ;  and  odes  are  frequently  not 
only  composite  in  metre,  but  very  irregular  in  the  length  and  rhyming  of  the  lines. 

Ex. —  "  'Twas  at  the  royal  feast  for  Persia  won 

By  Philip's  warlike  86n ; 
Aloft,  in  awful  state. 
The  godlike  hero  sate 

On  his  imperial  throne  : 
His  valiant  peers  were  placed  ar6und. 
Their  brows  with  roses  and  with  myrtle  bound  ; 
So  should  desert  in  arms  be  crowned. 
The  lovely  Thais  by  his  side 
Sat  like  a  blooming  Eastern  bride, 
In  flower  of  yoiith  and  beauty's  pride. 
Happy,  happy,  happy  pair ; 
None  but  the  brave. 
None  but  the  brave. 
None  biit  the  brave  deserves  the  fair,"  etc. — Dryden. 

See  Dryden's  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  Poe's  Bells,  CoUins's  Ode  on  the  Passions,  and 
Gray's  Odes. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  scraps  of  verse,  formed  chiefly  with  the  design  of 
being  mechanically  ingenious. 

*'  She  drove  her  fiocTc  o'er  mountains^  "  Now,  O,  now  I  needs  must  jpar^, 

By  grove^  or  roch^  or  fountains.''''  Ihrting  though  I  absent  mourn; 

•  <  Lightly  and  Iriqhtly  breaks  away  Absence  can  no  joy  impart. 

The  morning  from  her  mantle  gray.''— Byron.      'toy  once  fled  can  ne  er  return. 

This  is  line-rhyming  or  loord-matching. 


296  VERSIFICATION. FAULTY    LINES. OBSERVATIONS. 

"  Toward  yon  t  owered  castle,  "  E  vening  drawa  her  rosy  veil 

T'me-and-r^me-renowned,  L  ovely  o'er  the  western  sky ; 

L  igUly  I  et  thy  waves  then  L  ingering  clouds  in  beautv  sail 

L  eap  the  steepj  I  edges,  E  re  the  night  withdraws  their  dye. 

P  our  in  p  ureal  silver  i\r  ot  a  wavelet,"  etc. 

P  roudly,  I  oudly  over,  g^^^  ^g^gg  makes  what  is  called   an 

D  ancing  d  (rwn  with  laughter,  acrostic 

D  ashing,  flashing  onward,"  etc. 

Marsh's  Lectures.      „  ^^^^  sharpness  shows  the  8weetest/m?irf, 
This  is  line-rhyming  and  allitera-        Such  cuttings  rather  heal  than  rend. 
tion  combined.    See  page  261.  And  such  beginnings  touch  their  end. 

cur-  f-  w-  d-  dis-  and  p- 

A         -sed       -lend        -ronght       -eath         -ease  -ain. 

bles-         fr-  b-  br-  and  a^- 

*'  A  cursed  fiend  wrought  death,  disease,  and  pam ; 
A  blessed  friend  brought  breath  and  ease  again." 
Such  verses  have  been  called  task  poetry. 


Faulty    Lines. 

Point  out  the  errors : — 
Faulty  measure  :    "  And  the  mountains  will  echo  industry's  glad  song." 
*'  Low  shall  they  lie  while  ages  after  ages  flee, 
But  their  tomb  shall  stand  a  proud  Thermopylae." 
Faulty  rhyme  :        "  Should  every  hopeful  prospect  fade  on  life's  uncertain  way ; 
Should  every  tie  that  love  has  made,  be  rudely  torn  away." 
"  Another  story  all  the  town  will  tell ; 
Phillis  paints  fair  to  look  like  an  angel." 
Both  :  "  And  now,  where  shade  and  fountain  meet, 

Herds  of  horses  and  cattle  feed." 
Inelegant  rhyme  :  "  Above  the  woody  vales,  on  high 

The  eagle  soars  in  majesty." 
Too  MANY  epithets  :  "Dark-rolling,  high  in  eddying  wreaths  uprising, 

Awfully  grand,  majestically  awful." 
Bad  IMAGERY :  "  Balmy  zephyr,  lightly  flitting. 

Shade  me  with  your  azure  wing." 
Faulty  thoughts  :    "  The  smiles  of  joy,  the  tears  of  woe. 
Deceitful  shine,  deceitful  flow — 

There's  nothing  true  but  Heaven," — T.  Moore. 
Smiles  and  tears  may  be  deceitful ;  but  smiles  of  joy,  and  tears  of  woe,  are 
never  so. 

*'  Back  from  Miami,  like  a  star  he  flies, 
Meigs  to  assist  to  hurry  the  supplies." — Fredoniad. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Poetry  is  closely  allied  to  music,  painting,  statuary,  and,  indeed,  to  all  the 
fine  art.s,  of  which  it  is  the  greatest.  Its  master  passion  is  love,  in  the  most  en- 
larged sense  of  the  term.  In  some  poetry,  thought  predominates,  as  in  Pope's 
Kssay  on  Man ;  in  some,  feeling,  as  in  Wolfe's  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore ;  in  some 
the  imagery,  as  in  Moore's  Lalla  Ilookb  ;  in  some  the  music,  as  in  songs,  which 
often  have  but  little  to  recommend  them,  except  that  they  are  good  vehicles  for 
pretty  tunes  or  airs.      In  some  poetry  are  happily  combined  all  the  excellencies. 

2.  Poetry  must  be  composed  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  correctness, 
and  the  traits  of  excellence,  required  in  good  prose ;  that  is,  it  must  possess  fun- 


VERSIFICATION. OBSERVATIONS.  297 

dameiitally  all  the  good  qualities  of  good  prose,  and  all  deviations  must  be  such 
as  make  it  poetry,  and  elevate  it  above  prose,  or  such  as  impart  to  it  some  pe- 
culiar poetic  excellence. 

3.  Poetry  should  be  composed  in  a  lofty  or  ardent  glow  of  spirit ;  and  a 
deficiency  allowed  in  any  of  its  essential  qualities,  should  generally  be  atoned 
for  by  superior  excellence  in  the  other  qualities. 

4.  Poetry,  in  its  feet,  csesural  pauses,  rhymes,  words,  modes  of  expression, 
arrangement  of  words,  and  licenses,  should  be  in  accordance  with  the  usage 
of  the  best  poets,  or  in  accordance  with  the  principles  in  which  the  art  itself 
is  founded.  

5.  Such  a  mode  of  versification  should  always  be  chosen,  as  will  best  corre- 
spond with  the  sentiments  of  the  intended  poem. 

6.  When  a  certain  stanza,  or  a  certain  mode  of  versification,  has  been  adopted, 
there  should  not  be,  throughout  the  same  poem,  any  departure  from  it,  either  in 
the  kind  of  feet,  in  the  number  of  feet  to  the  respective  fines,  or  in  the  mode 
of  arranging  the  lines  that  rhyme.  Eegularity  is  one  of  the  chief  beauties  of 
poetry. 

Rhyming  lines  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  occasionally  into  blank  verse  ; 
HOT  should  lines  of  blank  verse  be  occasionally  interspersed  among  rhyming 
lines. 

7.  Rhymes  should  exactly  correspond,  or  at  least  be  allowable;  that  is,  corre- 
spond sufficiently  to  be  authorized  by  the  usage  of  good  poets. 

8.  When  the  merit  of  poetry  is  to  depend  on  its  structure  as  to  quantity  and 
accent  alone,  there  must  be  regularity  and  great  melody,  or  great  excellence  of 
thought,  sentiment,  and  expression,  to  atone  for  the  qualities  that  are  wanting. 
Therefore  most  of  our  "Sapphics,"  "hexameters,"  and  other  fantastic  imitations 
of  what  is  found  in  ancient  or  in  foreign  languages,  are  hardly  poetry  according 
to  the  genius  of  our  literature. 

9.  Songs  are  not  always  so  regular  as  other  poems.  To  write  a  good  song 
requires  great  art,  unless  the  mind  happens  to  be  one  of  those  rare  and  fine  ones 
in  which  nature  has  combined  the  poet  and  the  musical  compositor.  The  best 
songs  are  written  by  learning  the  air,  tone,  or  music  first,  and  then  setting  it  to 
words,  or,  rather,  wedding  it  to  words. 

10.  In  the  composition  of  odes,  the  poet  may,  in  general,  pursue  whatever 
variety  of  versification  he  pleases,  in  order  that  he  may  express  a  varying  train 
of  feelings  in  rhythm  suiting  the  different  parts,  and  thus  produce  a  much  richer 
and  better  harmony  than  unvaried  regularity  could  afibrd. 

11.  It  seems  to  be  a  prevailing  opinion  among  the  people  of  western  and  of 
southern  Asia,  that  poems — especially  long  ones— should  be  varied  in  versifica- 
tion, in  order  to  produce  tlie  highest  degree  of  pleasure.  Scott,  Byron,  and 
Moore,  have  written  many  of  their  cantos  thus,  and  successfully.  The  privilege, 
however,  of  using  different  feet  promiscuously,  or  of  varying  ^  the  versification, 
can  be  allowed  only  to  relieve  monotony,  or  when  such  diversity  will  make  the 
verse  more  expressive,  or  decidedly  more  agreeable  than  regular  structure  would 
make  it. 

12.  We  sometimes  find,  even  in  shorter  poems  that  are  not  odes,  a  sort  of 
wayward  irregularity  in  the  length  and  rhyming  of  fines.  The  propriety  of  such 
structure  must,  I  suppose,  be  judged  by  the  effect;  and  if  it  proves  to  be  really 
the  inborn  music  of  genius,  of  course  it  is  allowable.  But  perhaps  the  reader 
would  rather  hear  a  poet's  opinion  of  it : — 

"  He  [Halleck]  is  familiar  with  those  general  rules  and  principles  which  are 
the  basis  of  metrical  harmony ;  and  his  own  unerring  taste  has  taught  him  the 
exceptions  which  a  proper  attention  to  variety  demands.  He  understands  that 
the  rivulet  is  made  musical  by  obstructions  in  its  channel  In  no  poet  can  be 
found  passages  which  flow  with  more  sweet  and  liquid  smoothness ;  but  ho 


298  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

knows  very  well  that  to  make  this  smoothness  perceived,  and  to  prevent  it  from 
degenerating  into  monotony,  occasional  roughness  must  bo  interposed." — Bryant. 

13.  Poets  take  unusual  Hberties  with  language,  which  are  called  poetic 
licenses.  Greater  liberty  is  allowed  to  them  than  to  prose  writers,  chiefly  in  the 
choice  of  words,  in  the  number  of  words,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  words. 
They  sometimes  use  antiquated  words,  spelling,  or  pronunciation  ;  they  often 
shorten  words,  sometimes  lengthen  them,  and  sometimes  exchange  them  for 
kindred  words  or  forms.  They  sometimes  adopt  obsolete  or  foreign  idioms. 
They  allow  unusual  eUipses,  unusual  pleonasms,  and  frequent  and  sometimes 
violent  inversions.  In  general,  any  arrangement  of  words  is  allowed  that  will 
preserve  the  sense. 

14.  Poetry  may  be  faulty  in  the  measure,  in  the  rhyme,  in  the  imagery,  in 
the  modes  of  expression,  in  the  quality  of  the  thoughts.  But  the  worst  and 
most  common  fault  is  that  of  making  poetry  out  of  gaudy  language  merely,  or 
out  of  remembered  poetic  scraps  and  phrases.  Such  is  most  of  the  newspaper 
poetry,  in  which  we  have  often  been  obliged  to  see  the  waves  of  the  Pacific 
rolling  about  in  the  Mississippi  Yalley ;  rose-bushes  blooming  in  January  ;  buds, 
violets,  roses,  juicy  peaches,  golden  apples,  and  twinkling  stars,  all  flourishing 
promiscuously  together.  We  have  also  heard  nightingales  sing  on  the  Ohio 
river,  and  larks  where  surely  they  never  were.  True  poetry  does  not  consist  in 
a  jumbling-together  of  the  images,  words,  and  poetic  expressions  of  other  poets, 
but  in  exact  copies  or  daguerreotypes  of  interesting  parts  of  the  world  of  nature 
or  the  world  of  soul,  as  conceived  with  a  warm  heart,  a  sprightly  intellect,  and 
a  glowing  imagination. 

16.  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

Discourse*  is  composed  of  propositions. 
A  proposition  is  a  subject  combined  with  its  predicate. 
The  subject  denotes  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed. 
The  predicate  denotes  what  is  affirmed. 

Discourse  may  be  divided  into  paragraphs.  ■ 

Paragraphs  are  composed  of  sentences. 

A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  by  words. 

Sentences  are  either  simple  or  compound, 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  proposition. 

The  sentence  is  still  considered  simple,  if  its  nominative  is  a  proposition;  hut 
not  80,  if  it  contains  a  subordinate  proi)03ition  in  any  other  relation.  Some  gram- 
marians supply  words  so  as  to  make  with  each  finite  verb  a  proposition  or  simple 
sentence ;  but,  wlienever  we  can  do  so  conveniently,  it  is  best  to  regard  a  series  of 
finite  verbs  as  but  one  predicate. 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  propositions,  or  simple 
sentences.  If  one  of  the  propositions  modifies  another,  the  sentence 
is,  by  some  grammarians,  called  complex. 

A  clause  is  any  one  of  two  or  more  propositions  which  together 
make  a  sentence. 

*  Dtsooubbk,  literally,  rc/er.s  to. Me  run  or  flow  of  thought ;  p::oro8iTiON  means  some- 
tninn placed  be.fort ;  paragraph,  written  beside;  sentence,  thought;  clause,  what  closes^ 
or  flllsuuf;  coHnniyxTK,  ranking  with  ;  suJiOEuiNATE,  ranking  under;  analysis,  separ- 
ating; SYNTHESIS,  putting  together. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  299 

Exercises, 

Faint  (nit  tie  proposiUom  oi-  clauses,  and  tell  whether  the  sentences  are  simple  or 


The  flowers  are  gemmed  with  dew.  The  maple  on  the  hill-side  has  lost  its 
bright  green,  and  its  leaves  have  the  hue  of  gold.  As  you  come  near,  they 
spring  up,  fly  a  little  distance,  and  hght  again.  Suspicion  ever  haunts  the 
guilty  mind.  Hard  things  become  easy  by  use ;  and  skill  is  gained  by  little 
and  little.  The  weight  of  years  has  bent  him,  and  the  winter  of  age  rests  upon 
his  head.  He  touched  his  harp,  and  nations  heard  entranced.  The  union  is 
the  vital  sap  of  the  tree ;  if  we  reject  the  Constitution,  we  girdle  the  tree ;  its 
leaves  will  wither,  its  branches  drop  off,  and  the  mouldering  trunk  will  be  torn 
down  by  the  tempest.  The  good  times,  when  the  farmer  entertained  the 
traveler  without  pay ;  when  he  invited  him  to  tarry,  and  join  in  the  chase ; 
when  Christmas  and  Fourth  of  July  were  seasons  of  general  festivity, — have 
passed  away,  "Thy  worldly  hopes,"  said  the  hermit,  "shall  have  faded,  thy 
castles  of  ambition  crumbled,  and  thy  fiery  passions  subdued,  ere  thou'  hast 
reached  the  meridian  of  life."  Read  this  Declaration  at  the  head  of  the  army, 
— every  sword  will  be  drawn  from  its  scabbard,  and  the  solemn  vow  uttered,  to 
maintain  it,  or  to  perish  on  the  bed  of  honor.  A  grain  of  musk  wiU  scent  a 
room  for  twenty  years,  and  will  have  lost  but  a  small  part  of  its  weight.  "What 
costs  nothing,  is  worth  nothing.  That  he  must  fail,  is  certain.  'Tis  liberty 
alone  that  gives  the  flowers  of  fleeting  life  their  lustre  and  perfume.  Gro,  and 
assist  him,  that  the  work  may  be  finished.  He  who  is  false  to  God,  is  not  true 
to  man.  Though  thy  slumbers  may  be  deep,  yet  thy  spirit  shall  not  sleep ; 
there  are  shades  that  will  not  vanish,  there  are  thoughts  thou  canst  not  banish. 
To  dress,  to  visit,  to  gossip,  and  to  thrum  her  piano,  are  the  chief  employments 
of  the  modern  belle. 

Every  proposition  is  either  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative, 
or  exclamatory.  Every  sentence  is  the  same,  or  a  composite  of  these. 

A  declarative  proposition  expresses  a  declaration ;  an  interroga- 
tive proposition,  a  question  ;  an  imperative  proposition,  a  command  ; 
and  an  exclamatory  proposition,  an  exclamation. 

Ex. — "  John  rides  that  wild  horse."  "  Does  John  ride  that  wild  horse  ?" 
"  John,  ride  that  wild  horse."  "  John  rides  that  wild  horse  !"  An  exclamatory 
sentence  is  merely  a  declarativej  an  interrogative,  or  an  imperative  sentence  ut- 
tered chiefly  to  express  the  emotion  of  the  speaker. 

Exer  cises. 

The  'propositions ;  and  whether  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclamxir 
tory,  and  why : — 

A  waving  willow  was  bending  over  the  fountain.  Rise,  and  defend  thyself. 
Shall  I  assist  you  ?  How  beautiful  is  yonder  sunset !  If  James  has  a  hun- 
dred marbles,  why  does  he  never  show  us  any  of  them  ?  Men  may,  I  find,  be 
honest,  though  they  difier.  JSTow  Twilight  lets  her  curtain  down,  and  pins  it 
with  a  star.  Green  be  the  turf  above  thee,  friend  of  my  better  days.  What 
shall  I  say  ?  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  I  She  is  busy  in  the  garden, 
among  the'  posies.  The  entire  fence  is  burned  down  1  Hear  him  I  hear  him  ! 
There  can  be  no  study  without  time ;  and  the  mind  must  abide,  and  dwell  upon 
things,  or  be  always  a  stranger  to  the  inside  of  them.  The  fly  sat  upon  the 
axle-tree  of  the  chariot- wheel,  and  said,  "  What  a  dust  do  I  raise  I" 

Every  proposition  is  either  independent  or  dependent. 


300  ANALYSTS    OF    SENTENCES. 

An  independent  proposition  makes  complete  sense  by  itself. 

A  dependent  proposition  depends  on  another  for  complete  sense. 

The  clause  of  a  complex  sentence  on  which  the  other  clauses  depend,  is  often 
called  the  principal  or  l€a,dim,g  clause ;  its  subject  and  predicate,  the  principal  or 
leading  subject  and  predicate;  and  the  dependent  clauses,  subordinate  clauses. 

Exercises. 

The  propositions;  and  whether  independent  or  dependent,  and  why  :— 
The  morning  dawns,  and  the  clouds  disperse.  The  dew  glistens  when  the 
sun  rises.  I  would  not  enter  on  my  list  of  friends  the  man  who  needlessly  sets 
foot  upon  a  worm.  Stillest  streams  oft  water  fairest  meadows  ;  and  the  bird 
that  flutters  least,  is  longest  on  the  wing.  The  path  of  sorrow  leads  to  the  land 
where  sorrow  is  unknown.  If  the  mind  be  curbed  and  humbled  too  much  in 
children,  if  their  spirits  be  abased  and  broken  much  by  too  strict  a  hand  over 
them, — they  lose  all  their  vigor  and  industry.  Come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  come 
ye  in  war  ?  In  one  place  we  saw  a  gang  of  sixty-five  horses ;  but  the  buffaloes 
seemed  absolutely  to  cover  the  ground.  "  Come,"  says  Puss,  "  without  any 
more  ado ;  'tis  time  to  go  to  breakfast:  cats  don't  live  upon  dialogues." 


Every  proposition  may  be  divided  into  the  entire  subject  and  the 
entire  predicate. 

The  entire  subject  must  have  one  or  more  subject-nominatives  to 
the  same  verb  or  verbs. 

The  entire  predicate  must  have  one  or  more  finite  verbs  agreeing 
with  the  same  subject,  which  may  be  called  the  predicate-verbs. 

Hence  both  subjects  and  predicates  are  either  simple  or  compound. 

The  subject-nominative  may  be  a  ivord,  a  phrase,  or  an  entire  claurse;  the  predi- 
cate-verb is  simply  a  verb. 

Most  grammarians  call  the  entire  subject  the  logical  subject ;  the  entire  predi- 
cate, the  logical  predicate ;  the  subject-nominative,  the  grammatical  subject ;  and 
the  predicate-verb,  the  grammatical  predicate.  This  mode  of  naming  is  not  so 
simple  aiS  the  one  we  have  given. 

Exercises. 

T%e  propositions  ;  the  entire  subjects,  and  then  the  subjeet^nominatives  ;  the  entire 
predicates,  and  then  the  predicate-verbs : — 

Men  work.  Most  men  work  daUy.  The  leaves  rustle.  The  leaves  rustle 
in  the  passing  breeze.  Leaves  and  flowers  must  perish.  Flowers  bloom  and 
fade.  Leaves  and  flowers  flourish  and  decay.  Poplars  and  alders  ever  quiv- 
ering played,  and  nodding  cypress  formed  a  fragrant  shade.  In  youth  alone, 
unhappy  mortals  live ;  but,  ah  I  the  mighty  gift  is  fugitive.  The  same  errors 
nin  through  all  families  in  which  there  is  wealth  enough  to  afford  that  their 
sons  may  be  good  for  nothing.  Depart.  In  concert  act,  like  modern  friends, 
since  one  can  servo  the  other's  ends.  That  it  is  our  duty  to  be  kind  and 
obliging,  admits  of  no  doubt.  The  division  and  quavering  which  please  so 
much  in  music,  have  a  resemblance  to  the  glittering  of  light,  as  when  the  moon- 
beams play  upon  the  water.  It  is  often  the  fault  of  parents,  guardians,  and 
teachers,  that  so  many  persons  miscarry.  (Here  either  "  It"  or  the  clause  "  that 
so  many,"  etc.,  may  be  considered  the  subject  of  "  is,"  and  the  other  term  may 
be  parsed  as  agreeing  with  the  subject  in  case.)      It  is  hardly  practicable  for  the 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  301 

human  mind  to  obtain  a  clear  and  familiar  knowledge  of  an  art,  without  illustra- 
tions and  exemplifications.  Ah  me !  the  blooming  pride  of  May,  and  that  of 
beauty,  are  but  one. 


The  parts  into  which  sentences  are  divided  in  analysis,  are  called 
elements.  Subject-nominatives  and  predicate-verbs  are  the  principal 
elements  ;  and  they  may  be  modified  by  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

A  part  that  modifies  another,  adds  something  to  its  meaning,  or  takes  away 
something. 

What  modifies,  is  either  explanatory  or  restrictive. 

Ex. — "The  town  lay  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  which  we  climbed.^''  "  The  town  lay  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill  which  we  dimhed.^^ 

Whatever  modifies  a  substantive,  is  an  adjective  element. 

Ex — "  Solomon's  Temple."  What  temple  ?  *'  David,  the  king  and  psalmist." 
What  David?  "The  land  o/oa^»w."  What  land?  "A  hill  crowned  with  ma- 
jestic trees.^^  What  kind  of  hill  ?  "A  proposition  to  sell  tJte  farm."  What  prop- 
osition ?  "  The  store  which  is  on  the  corner.^''  What  store  ?  "A  request  that  you 
will  go  with  t*«."     What  kind  of  request  ? 

What  modifies,  may  itself  be  modified. 

A  NOUN  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  article.     "  The  man  is  intelligent." 

2.  'Qj  3ia  adjective.     "  A  ieautiful  ROS^  f  "  A  UOSE,  red  and  heautifid.^^ 

3.  By  a  possessive,     ^^  John's  horse  ;"  "ify  slate." 

4.  By  an  appositive.     "  John  the  saddler ;"  "  The  poet  Milton.'''' 

5.  By  a.  participle,  with  what  belongs  to  it.     "  A  law  relating  to  taoces.^^ 

6.  By  an  infinitive,  with  what  belongs  to  it.     "  A  path  to  guide  us." 
1.  By  sia  adjunct.     "A  UA'¥!  of  wisdom." 

8.  By  a  clause.  "  The  willow  that  stands  by  the  spring ;"  "  A  request  that 
you  will  go  with  us  to-morrow." 

A  pronoun  may  be  modified  in  the  same  ways,  except  not  by  a  possessive. 
A  modified  word  has  frequently  several  modifications  at  once. 

Exercises. 

77ie  nmuu  and  pronauns,  and  hy  what  they  are  modifi£d : — 

A  dewy  rose.  The  land  of  oranges.  Lurking  evils.  Evils  lurking  near. 
Evils  that  lurk  near.  A  house  situated  on  the  river.  An  opportunity  to 
study.  The  sun's  beams.  Milton  the  poet.  The  deer  which  ran  out  of  the 
field,  and  which  I  shot.  A  bright  morning,  fresh  and  balmy,  that  refreshed  us 
all.  The  calumet  was  produced,  and  the  two  forlorn  powers  smoked  eternal 
friendship  between  themselves,  and  vengeance  upon  their  common  spoilers,  the 
Crows.  The  silence  of  the  night ;  the  calmness  of  the  sea ;  the  lambent  radi- 
ance of  the  moon,  trembling  on  the  surface  of  the  waves;  and  the  deep  azure  of 
the  sky,  spangled  with  a  thousand  stars, — concurred  to  heighten  the  beauty  of  the 
scene.  With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man  restore  us,  and  regain  the  bliss- 
fiil  seat.  Numerous  small  lakes  lie  inland,  round  which,  on  beaten  trails,  roam 
herds  of  red  deer.  Sweet  day,  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright,  the  bridal  of  the  earth 
and  sky. 


302  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

Whatever  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  or  may  be 
given  in  answer  to  an  interrogative  adverb,  or  as  the  complement  of 
a  predicate,  is  an  adverbial  element. 

Ex. — "  The  house  was  sold  yesterday.''''  When?  "The  house  contains  mvch 
furniture.''''  Contains  what  ?  " The  house  was  «  w^re  ca^m."  Was  what?  "The 
house  fell,  crushing  its  inmates.''''  Fell  how  ?  "  The  house  was  sold  to  pay  the 
owner's  debtsJ'^  Why?  "The  house  was  sold  because  the  mvner  was  in  debt.'''' 
Why? 

A  modified  verb  may  be  a  finite  verb,  a  participle,  or  an  infinitive. 

A  VERB  may  be  modified— 

1.  By  an  object.     "  Men  build  houses.''^ 

2.  "Bj  3. predicate-nominative.     "John  has  BECOME  a/ar/ner." 

3.  By  an  adjective.     "  To  be  wise ;"  "  James  is  M?Ze." 

4.  "Bj  sio.  adverb.     "The  horse  ran /os^." 

5.  By  a  participle+.     "  The  stone  rolled  thundering  down  the  hill." 

6.  By  an  infinitive^.     "  I  have  concluded  to  remain  with  you." 
1.  By  an  adjunct.     "Apples  grow  on  trees.'" 

8.  By  a  clause.     "  She  thinks  he  is  rich ;"  "  He  studies  that  he  may  leam.^* 

Exercises. 

27ie  verbs,  and  by  what  modified  : — 

A  light  beaming  brightly.  He  writes  with  care.  Cast  not  pearls  before 
swine.  He  became  a  partner.  She  is  industrious.  I  intend  to  go.  I  be- 
lieve he  will  succeed,  when  he  makes  a  vigorous  effort.  Among  the  flowering 
vines  is  one  deserving  of  particular  notice.  Each  flower  is  composed  of  six 
leaves  about  three  inches  in  length,  of  beautiful  crimson,  the  inside  spotted  with 
white.  Its  leaves  of  fine  green  are  oval,  and  disposed  by  threes.  This  plant 
grows  upon  the  trees  without  attaching  itself  to  them ;  when  it  has  reached  the 
topmost  branches,  it  descends  perpendicularly,  and,  as  it  continues  to  grow,  ex- 
tends from  tree  to  tree,  until  its  various  stalks  interlace  the  grove  like  the  rig- 
ging of  a  ship.  Nature  from  the  vStorm  shines  out  afresh.  Not  even  a  philoso- 
pher can  endure  the  toothache  patiently.  There  never  yet  were  hearts  or 
skies,  clouds  might  not  wander  through.  Chaucer  said,  "  If  a  man's  soul  is  in 
his  pocket,  he  should  be  punished  there." 


An  ADJECTIVE  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  adverb.     "She  '\b  foolishly  proud." 

2.  By  an  infinitive.     "  The  fruit  is  good  to  eat." 

3.  By  an  adjunct    "  He  is  careful  of  his  booJcs." 

Exercises. 

The  adjectives,  and  by  what  modified : — 

She  was  uncommonly  beautiful.  Ho  is  poor  in  money,  but  rich  in  knowl- 
edge. Be  quick  to  hear,  but  slow  to  speak.  The  visions  of  my  youth  are 
past — too  bright,  too  beautiful  to  last.  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of 
my  cliildhood  1^  That  father,  faint  in  death  below,  his  voice  no  longer  heard. 
Wise  in  council  and  brave  in  war,  he  soon  became  the  most  successful  leader. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  303 

An  ADVERB  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  adverb.     "  The  horse  ran  very  past." 

2.  By  an  adjunct.     *'  He  has  acted  inconsistently  with  his  professions." 

Exercises. 

The  adverbs,  and  by  what  modified : — 

It  is  very  badly  done.      She  studies  most  dihgently.      You  can  not  come 
too  soon.       He  has  written  agreeably  to  your  directions. 


When  a  dependent  clause  is  abridged  into  a  phrase,  having  a 

nominative  absolute,  the  phrase  retains  the  modifying  sense  of  the 

clause. 

Some  grammarians  call  such  also  independent  phrases,  though  perhaps  need- 
lessly. 

Exercises. 

The  absolute  phrases,  and  what  they  modify : — 

My  trunk  being  packed,  I  sent  for  a  carriage.  (Sent  why  or  when  ?)  The 
sun  having  set,  we  returned  home.  His  father  having  been  imprisoned,  he  went 
to  rescue  him.  Along  he  sauntered,  his  musing  fancies  absorbing  his  whole 
souL 

« 

Nominatives  independent,  or  the  phrases  containing  them,  and 
interjections,  are  independent  elements. 

Exercises. 

Point  out  the  independent  words  or  phrases : — 

0  Liberty  I  can  man  resign  thee,  once  having  felt  thy  glorious  flame  !  "Weep 
on  the  rocks  of  roaring  winds,  0  maid  of  Inistore  1  0  Milan  1  0  the  golden  bells 
which  oft  at  eve  so  sweetly  tolled  1  Alas,  alas!  fair  In^s,  she's  gone  into  the 
West.  The  land  of  the  heart  is  the  land  of  the  West ;  oho  boys  1  oho  boys ! 
oho  I  Hist,  Romeo,  hist.  My  stars  1  what  a  fish  I  Ha,  ha,  ha !  a  fine 
gentleman,  truly. 

' » 

Connecting  words  are  conjunctions,  prepositions,  adverbs,  and 
relative  pronouns.     Sometimes  phrases. 

Sometimes  connectives  are  omitted,  or  the  connection  is  sufficiently 
obvious  by  the  position  of  the  parts. 

Exercises. 

Point  out  the  connectives,  tell  of  what  kind,  and  what  they  connect : — 
The  sun  has  set,  and  the  moon  and  stars  begin  to  appear.  He  took  the 
horse  which  I  had  brought.  When  I  behold  a  fashionable  table  set  out,  I  fancy 
that  gouts,  fevers,  and  lethargies,  lie  in  ambush  among  the  dishes.  He  that 
knows  not  how  to  suffer,  has  no  greatness  of  soul.  Though  deep,  yet  clear  ; 
though  gentle,  yet  not  dull.  The  moment  I  touched  it,  down  it  fell.  The 
deeper  the  water,  the  smoother  it  flows.  (Connected  by  the  correlative  sense  of 
the  clauses.)  A  corporation,  whether  commercial  or  proprietary,  is  perhaps  the 
worst  of  sovereigns.  Gain  is  the  object  which  leads  to  the  formation  of  these 
companies,  and  which  constitutes  the  interest  most  hkely  to  be  fostered.  Where 
an  individual  is  the  sovereign,  there  is  room  for  appeal  to  magnanimity,  to  be- 


304  ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES. 

nevolence,  to  the  love  of  glory ;  but  corporate  ambition  is  deaf  to  mercy  and  in* 
sensible  to  shame.  To  be  happy  is  not  only  to  be  free  from  the  pains  and  dis- 
eases of  the  body,  but  also  from  the  cares  and  diseases  of  the  mind. 

"  Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash ;  'tis  something,  nothing ; 

'Twas  mme,  'tis  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands  : 
'    But  he  who  filches  from  me  my  good  name, 
Eobs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him, 
And  makes  me  poor  indeed  1"  *      ■ 


Propositions  are  sometimes  elliptical  or  inverted. 
Exercises. 

Point  out  the  elliptical  parts,  supply  the  omitted  words,  and  restore  the  logical  ar- 
rangement : — 

And  jokes  went  round,  and  careless  chat.  No  mate,  no  comrade,  Lucy 
knew.  Oh,  how  damp,  and  dark,  and  cold  I  "Then  why  do'nt  you  go," 
said  I.  Pride  costs  us  more  than  hunger,  thirst,  and  cold.  The  woman 
(strange  circumstance!)  remained  'obstinately  silent.  Out  of  debt;  out  ot 
danger.  On  the  cool  and  shady  hills,  coffee  shrubs  and  tamarinds  grow.  Alas 
for  love,  if  thou  wert  all,  and  naught  beyond,  0  earth  1  Of  all  the  thousand  stirs 
not  one.     "  Sir,  I  can  not. — What,  my  lord  ? — Make  you  a  wholesome  answer." 

First,  Fear  his  hand,  its  skill  to  try, 

Amid  the  chords  bewildered  laid ; 
And  back  recoiled,  he  knew  not  why, 

E'en  at  the  sound  himself  had  made. 


Sentences,  propositions,  and  phrases,  may  be  analyzed  according 
to  the  following 

Formulas. 

A  sentence,  and  why;  simple  or  compound,  and  why;  declarative,  interrogative^ 
imperative,  exclamatory,  or  a  composite  of,  and  why. 

___  j^  a  phrase ;  the  chief  word  •   modified  hv ■ 

an  iudependent  phrase ;    the  independent  substantive  '  ^ 

—is  the  entire  ^-^  ^  the  ^SlSS^^ "'  ^«  — •  ^^^^^^  ^^  — 

—is  the  entire  ^^Sle  ;  *^«  prSte- "iT^'-^-'  — ^^"^  ^^^  -^  ^^^^^^  ^y- 

ANALYSIS    EXEMPLIFIED. 

Simple  Sentences  Analyzed. 

"Sin  degrades." 

This  is  a  sentence,  it  is  a  thought  expressed  by  words  ;  simple,  it  contains  but 
one  proposition ;  declarative,  it  expresses  a  declaration. 

Sin  is  the  subject,  because  it  denotes  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed  ;  and 
degrades  is  the  predicate,  because  it  denotes  what  is  affirmed  of  sin.  Sin  is  also  the 
Bubjcct-nominative  ;  and  degrades,  the  predicate-verb. 


ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES.  305 

"  My  friend,  were  these  houses  and  lands  purchased  and  improved 
by  our  old  senator,  David  Barton  ?" 

This  is  a  sentence^  it  is  a  collection  of  words  making  complete  sense;  simple^  it 
contains  but  one  proposition,  or  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate  ;  interrogative, 
it  asks  a  question. 

My  friend  is  an  independent  phrase,  because  it  has  no  grammatical  connection 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Friend  is  the  principal  word,  and  it  is  modified  or 
limited  by  the  possessive  My. 

The  phrase  these  houses  and  lands,  is  the  subject,  because  it  denotes  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed. 

The  phrase  were  purchased  and  improved  hyour  old  senator,  David  Barton,  is  the 
predicate,  because  it  denotes  what  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Houses  and  lands  are  the  subject-nominatives,  connected  by  the  word  and,  and 
modified  by  the  adjective  these. 

Were  purchased  and  [were]  improved  are  the  predicate-verbs,  connected  by  and 
and  modified  by  the  phrase  by  our  old  senator,  David  Barton.  Our  old  senator  is 
modified  by  David  Barton  ;  old  senator  is  modified  or  limited  by  the  possessive 
our  ;  and  senator  is  modified  by  old. 

Or  thus :  Was  is  the  copula ;  purchased  and  improved  are  the  attributives,  modi- 
fied by (as  before). 

Compcond  Sentences  Analyzed. 

"  A  man  who  saves  the  fragments  of  time,  will  accomplish  much 
in  the  course  of  his  life." 

This  is  a  sentence,  it  is  a  complete  thought  expressed  by  words ;  compound,  it 
contains  more  propositions  than  one  ;  (or,  complex,  it  contains  two  propositions,  of 
which  one  modifies  the  other ;)  declarative,  it  expresses  a  declaration. 

A  man  who  saves  the  fragments  of  time,  is  the  entire  subject  of  the  principal 
clause,  because  it  denotes  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed ;  and  wiU  accomplish 
rmich  in  the  course  of  his  life,  is  the  entire  predicate,  because  it  denotes  what  is  af- 
firmed of  the  subject.  Man  is  the  subject-nominative ;  and  it  is  modified  by  the 
article  A,  and  the  clause  who  saves  the  fragments  of  time :  wiU  accomplish  is  the 
predicate-verb,  and  is  modified  by  the  object  much  and  the  adjunct  in  the  course 
of  his  life. 

Who  saves  the  fragments  of  time,  is  a  proposition  connected  to  man,  by  the  rela- 
tive who,  as  a  subordinate  clause  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective. 

Who  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative :  saves  the  fragments  of 
time,  is  the  entire  predicate ;  saves  is  the  predicate-verb,  and  is  modified  by  its  ob- 
ject fragments,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the  article  the  and  the  adjunct  oftim^. 


"  What  pleases  the  palate,  is  not  always  good  for  the  constitu- 
tion." 

This  is  a  sentence,  it  is  a  collection  of  words  making  complete  sense  ;  twnponnd, 
consisting  of  two  propositions  ;  (or,  complex,  it  contains  two  propositions  of  which 
one  modifies  the  other ;)  declarative,  it  expresses  a  declaration. 

"  What  is  equivalent  to  that  which.     What,  or  tJiat  which,  pleases  the  palate,  is  the 
entire  subject  of  the  principal  clause  ;  aud  is  Twt  always  good  for  the  constitution,  is 


306  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

the  entire  predicate.  That  is  the  subject-nominative,  and  is  modified  by  the  clause 
vihich  pleases  the  palate;  is  is  the  predicate-verb,  and  is  modified  by  the  adjective 
ffood,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the  adjunct  for  the  constitution  and  the  adverb 
always^  and  always  is  modified  by  the  adverb  not. 

Which  pleases  the  palate,  is  a  proposition  connected  to  that^  by  the  relative  tt^Aic/^, 
as  a  subordinate  clause  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective. 

Which  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative ;  jjZeo^es  the  palate,  is  the 
entire  predicate  ;  pleases  is  the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  object  palate,  which 
is  itself  modified  by  the. 

["  What  causes  mildew,  lias  not  yet  been  ascertained  with  cer- 
tainty." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence,  having  the  incorporated  clause  What  causes  mildew 
as  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative.  Has  not  yet  been  ascertained 
with  certainty,  is  the  entire  predicate,  etc. 

What  causes  mildew,  is  a  subordinate  clause  incorporated  into  the  sentence  as 
a  substantive  in  the  nominative  case.  What  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject- 
nominative,  etc.] 

"  My  son,  if  thou  wouldst  receive  my  words,  and  hide  my  com- 
mandments with  thee,  so  that  thou  mayst  gain  wisdom ;  yea,  if  thou 
wouldst  seek  it  as  silver,  and  search  for  it  as  hidden  treasure, — then 
live  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  and  find  the  knowledge  of  God." 

This  is  a  sentence,  it  is  a  collection  of  words  making  complete  sense  ;  compound, 
it  consists  of  several  propositions ;  a  composite  of  declarative,  or  conditional  de- 
clarative,  and  imperative  clauses,  but  rather  an  imperative  sentence,  for  its  chiet 
wm  is  to  express  a  command  or  an  exhortation. 

"  Jfy  50  W," 

This  is  an  independent  phrase,  because  it  has  no  grammatical  connection  with 

the  rest  of  the  sentence,  etc.    (Proceed  as  before.) 

'^  If  thou  wouldst  receive  my  words,  and  hide  my  commandments  with  thee,"— 
This  is  a  proposition  connected  as  a  dependent  clause,  by  the  conjunction  if,  to 

the  last  clause  of  the  sentence,  etc.   (Analyze  these  clauses  in  the  same  way  as  the 

clauses  and  sentences  above  were  analyzed.) 

"  So  thai  thou  m^yest  gain  wisdom ;" — 

This  is  a  clause  dependent  on  the  clause  preceding  it,  to  which  it  is  connected 
by  80  that,  etc. 

^^Tea,  if  thou  wouldst  seek  it  as  silver,  and  search  for  it  as  hidden  treasure;" — 
This  is  a  clause  coordinate  with  the  member  preceding  it,  to  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  the  emphatic  yea  ;  and  dependent  on  the  last  clause  of  the  sentence,  to 
which  it  is  connected  by  if. 

"  As  silver,''—  "^s  for  hidden  treasure  ;"— 

As  silver  is  put  for  as  you  would  seek  for  silver,  and  is  therefore  a  clause  con- 
nected to  the  preceding  predicate  by  as  -as  a  subordinate  clause,  performing  the 
office  of  an  adverb  of  manner,  etc. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  307 

"JTim  live  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  and  find  the  TcnowUdge  of  God." 
This  is  the  principal  or  independent  clause,  connected  hy  then  to  the  rest  of  the 
Beutonce.     Thou,  understood,  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  suhject-nominative,  etc. 


Note. — Long  sentences  are  generally  most  easily  analyzed,  by  commencing  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  taking  not  more  than  one  clause,  independent 
•word  or  phrase,  at  a  time,  and  proceeding  thus  until  the  entire  sentence  is  ex- 
hausted. It  is  generally  better  to  defer  dependent  clauses,  till  their  principal 
clauses  are  analyzed. 

"  There  is  strong  reason  to  suspect  that  some  able  "Whig  poli- 
ticians, who  thought  it  dangerous  to  relax,  at  that  moment,  the 
laws  against  political  offenses,  but  who  could  not,  without  incur- 
ring the  charge  of  inconsistency,  declare  themselves  adverse  to 
relaxation,  had  conceived  a  hope  that  they  might,  by  fomenting  the 
dispute  about  the  court  of  the  lord  high  steward,  defer  for  at  least 
a  year  the  passing  of  a  bill  which  they  disliked,  and  yet  could 
not  decently  oppose." — Macaulay. 

Analysis. — ^This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  or  a  compound  declarative 
sentence  of  which  some  of  the  clauses  are  dependent.  There  is  strong  reason  to 
suspect^  is  the  principal  clause,  of  which  strong  reason  to  suspect^  is  the  entire  sub- 
ject ;  and  There  is,  the  entire  predicate  ;  reason  is  the  snbject-nominative,  modified 
by  the  adjective  strong,  and  the  infinitive  to  suspect  performing  the  office  of  an  ad- 
jective ;  is  is  the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  Tliere. 

That  some  able  Whig  politicians  had  conceived  a  hope,  is  the  next  simple  declara- 
tive clause,  performing  the  office  of  a  substantive  in  the  objective  case  governed  by 
to  suspect,  to  which  it  is  connected  by  that.  Some  able  Whig  politicians,  is  the  entire 
subject ;  and  had  conceived  a  hope,  is  the  entire  predicate  :  politicians  is  the  subject 
nominative,  modified  by  the  adjectives  some,  able,  and  Whig  ;  and  had  conceived  ia 
the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  object  hope,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the 
article  a. 

}Vho  thought  it  dangerous,  etc.,  (read  to  but,)  is  a  subordinate  relative  clause, 
connected  to  politicians  by  who,  and  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective.  Who  is 
the  entire  subject  and  subject-nominative ;  thought  it  dangerous,  etc.,  is  the  entire 
predicate,  of  which  thought  is  the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  object  it,  which  is 
modified  by  dangerous,  and  the  appositive  to  relax,  etc.,  of  which  to  relax  is  modi- 
fied by  the  adjunct  at  that  moment,  an  adverbial  element  whose  principal  word  is 
moment,  modified  by  that,  and  connected  to  the  verb  by  at ;  to  relax  is  further  modi- 
fied by  the  object  the  laws,  and  laws  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  against  political 
offences,  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective. 

But  who  could  not,  without,  etc,  (to  had),  is  a  relative  clause  also  modifying 
politicians,  siadi  couuQQtQd.  as  a  coordinate  clause  to  the  clause  before  it,  by  the 
adversative  conjunction  but.  Who  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative ; 
could  mt,  without  incurring,  etc.,  is  the  entire  predicate,  of  which  could^  declare  is 
the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  negative  adverb  not,  the  adverbial^  adjunct 
withmt  incurring  the  charge  of  i/nconsistency,  the  object  themselves,  which  is  modi- 
fled  by  the  adjective  adverse,  and  adverse  is  modified  by  the  adverbial  adjunct  to 
relaxation. 

14 


308  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

That  ihey  mighty  etc.  (to  which),  is  the  next  simple  clause,  — dependent,  con- 
nected to  hope  by  that,  and  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective.  Thei/  is  the  entire 
subject  and  the  subject-nominative ;  might  defer,  etc.,  is  the  entire  predicate,  of 
which  might  defer  is  the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  adverbial  elements  hy  fo- 
menting the  dAspute  about  the  court  of  the  lord  high  steward  (means), /or  a  year  (time), 
and  the  objective  element  the  passing  of  a  biU  ;  fomenting  is  joined  to  might  defer  by 
ly  and  modified  by  dispute,  dispute  is  modified  by  the  and  ahout  the  court,  court  is 
joined  to  dispute  by  about  and  modified  by  the  and  of  the  lord  high  steward,  lord  is 
joined  to  court  by  of  and  modified  by  the  and  the  appositive  high  steward  ;  for  a 
yewr  is  modified  by  the  adverbial  phrase  at  least;  passing  is  modified  by  the  and 
the  adjunct  of  a  hill. 

Which  they  dislihed,  etc.  (to  the  end),  is  a  relative  clause, — declarative,  depend- 
ent, connected  to  bill  by  which,  and  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective.  They  is 
the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative,  disliked  and  could  oppose  are  the 
predicate-verbs,  connected  by  and  yet,  and  modified,  both,  by  the  objective  which, 
and  the  latter  verb  by  the  adverb  decently,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the  nega- 
tive adverb  not. 

The  sentence  consists  of  six  clauses,  very  finely  bound  together,  of  which  the 
subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  branched  out  into  a  cluster  of  dependent  clauses. 
— The  student  will  seldom  find  a  sentence  more  difficult  to  analyze. 


Paragraphs  or  sentences  may  be  briefly  analyzed  by  simply 
pointing  out  the  clauses  or  propositions  in  their  logical  order. 
Parsing,  also,  may  be  much  abrido^ed. 

Sx. —        "  Man  hath  his  daily  work  of  body  or  mind 
Appointed,  which  declares  his  dignity. 
And  the  regard  of  Heaven  on  all  his  ways ; 
While  other  animals  inactive  range. 
And  of  their  doings  God  takes  no  account." — Milton. 
Man  hath  his  daily  work  of  body  or  mind  appointed. 
Which  declares  his  dignity,  and  the  regard  of  Heaven  on  all  his  ways. 
While  other  animals  range  inactive. 
And  God  takes  no  account  of  their  doings. 
Man  is  a  common  nouUj  in  the  nominative   case  to  hath  ;  hath  is  an  irre<rulnr 
transitive  verb  agreeing  with  Man  ;  his  is  a  personal  pronoun,  relating  to  Man,  as 
its  Antecedent,  and  possessing  work,  etc. 


EXERCISES. 

Tho  SMALL  CAPITALS  and  the  Italics  show  the  nominatives  and  the  finite  verbs,  or  the 
principal  elements. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences : — 

Stars  shine. 

The  SUN  RISES. 

Woodman,  spare  that  tree. 

Rome  was  not  built  in  one  day. 

The  WORLD  IS  bright  before  thee. 

The  spreading  orange  waves  a  load  of  gold. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  309 

The  VIOLET  HAS  MOURNED  above  their  graves  a  hundred  springs. 
In  slumbers  of  midnight  the  sailor-boy  lay. 
No  MAN  FORGETS  his  Original  trade. 
Violent  fires  burn  out  themselves. 
Out  of  every  grove  the  voice  of  pleasure  warbles. 
In  darkness  dissolves- the  gay  frost-work  of  bliss. 
Days,  months,  years,  and  ages,  shall  circle  away, 
And  still  the  vast  waters  above  thee  shall  roll. 
Death  saw  the  floweret  to  the  desert  given. 
Plucked  it  from  earth,  and  planted  it  in  heaven. 
My  hopes, — their  starry  light  is  gone. 
The  mellow  eve  is  gliding 

Serenely  down  the  west. 
Use  books  as  hees  use  flowers. 
iTo  hope  and  strive  is  the  way  to  thrive. 
The  LAPSE  to  indolence  is  soft  and  imperceptible ;  but  the  return 
to  diligence  is  difficult. 

How  poor  are  they  that  have  not  patience  ! 
What  wound  did  ever  he  At.  but  by  degrees? 
Large  streams  from  little  fountains  flow. 
Now  bright  the  sunbeam  on  St.  Lawrence  smiles, 
Her  million  lilies,  and  her  thousand  isles. 
On  thy  fair  bosom,  silver  lake. 

The  wild  swan  spreads  his  snowy  sail ; 
And  round  his  breast  the  ripples  break, 
As  down  he  hears  before  the  gale. 
The  rose  had  been  washed,  just  washed  in  a  shower. 

Which  Mary  to  Anna  conveyed  ; 
A  delicate  moisture  encumbered  the  flower. 
And  weighed  down  its  beautiful  head. 

Here  rests  his  head,  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 
A  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown. 
Much  must  be  borne  which  it  is  hard  to  bear. 
The  diamond  's  a  jewel,  on  earth  though  it  lie  ; 
And  DUST  still  is  dust,  when  His  Mown  to  the  sky. 
If  this  great  western  sun  he  struck  out  of  the  firmament,  at  what 
other  fountain  shall  the  lamp  of  liberty  hereafter  be  lighted? 
Night,  sable  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throne. 
In  ray  less  majesty,  now  stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  sceptre  o'er  a  slumbering  world. 
Sadly  and  slowly  they  climb  the  distant  mountains,  and  reap 
their  doom  in  the  setting  sun. 


310  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

At  midnight,  in  liis  guarded  tent, 

The  Turk  was  dreaming  of  the  hour 

When  Greece,  her  knee  in  suppliance  bent, 
Should  tremble  at  his  power. 

What  in  me  is  dark,  illumine  ;  what  is  low,  raise  and  support. 

For  contemplation  he,  and  valor,  formed  ; 
For  virtue  she,  and  sweet  attractive  grace. 

Eternal  Hope !  when  yonder  spheres  sublime 
Pealed  their  first  notes  to  sound  the  march  of  Time, 
Thy  joyous  youth  began,  but  not  to  fade : 
When  all  the  sister  ^:)Zawe^5  have  decayed^ 
When  wrapt  in  flames  the  realms  of  ether  glow. 
And  Heaven's  last  thunder  shakes  the  world  below. 
Thou,  undismayed,  shalt  o'er  the  ruins  smile. 
And  light  thy  torch  at  Nature's  funeral  pile. 

4 

SUxMMARY  OF  ANALYSIS  AND  DESCRIPTION. 

[This  section  is  c^igned  for  reference  only.] 

^  A  perfect  or  entirely  satisfactory  analysis  of  speech  has  never  been  made ;  and 
it  is  perhaps  even  less  possible  than  a  perfect  analysis  of  the  material  world.  Yet 
our  knowledge  of  either  may  be  much  extended  by  such  analyses  as  can  be  made. 

Analysis  is  the  separating  of  a  whole  into  its  parts. 

Synthesis  is  the  combining  of  parts  into  a  whole. 

The  an9,lysis  of  sentences  with  reference  to  the  entire  thoughts 
expressed  by  them,  is  called  Analysis ;  and  the  analysis  of  words 
with  reference  to  their  ideas  in  the  structure  of  sentences,  is  called 
Parsing. 

Language  is  any  series  of  words  or  signs  by  which  we  express 
or  communicate  thoughts. 

Discourse  is  the  embodying  of  thought  with  language,  or  it  is 
some  train  of  thought  embodied  in  language.  Discourse  is  to 
language  what  buildings  are  to  building-materials. 

Discourse,  according  to  its  subject-matter,  to  the  manner  in  which 
is  developed,  or  to  the  end  in  view,  has  been  variously  divided.  The 
most  obvious  division  is  into  prose  and  poetry. 

The  chief  divisions  of  prose  are  science,  jjhilosophy,  history,  trav- 
els, novels,  essays,  addresses,  critiques,  and  letters. 

The  chief  divisions  of  poetry  are  epic  poetry,  dramatic  poetry 
{tragedies  and  comedies),  lyric  poetry  (odes,  songs,  and  sonnets),  sat- 
ires, epistles,  epigrams,  and  epitaphs. 

Discourse  is  either  direct,  indirect,  or  representative. 


AXALYSI8    OF    SENTENCES.  311 

Direct  discourse  represents  the  speaker  as  giving  his  own  thoughts 
in  his  own  language. 

Indirect  discourse  represents  the  speaker  as  relating  in  his  own 
language  what  he  ascribes  to  another. 

Representative  discourse^  or  dialogue,  enables  the  author  to  rep- 
;esent,  by  assumed  characters,  either  his  own  sentiments  or  those  of 
others. 

The  great  advantage  of  representative  discourse,  and  also  to  some  extent 
of  indirect  discourse,  is,  that  it  enables  the  author  to  conceal  or  disguise  his  own 
opinions.  Who  shall  say,  for  instance,  to  what  extent  Shakespeare  is  morally  or 
critically  responsible  for  his  writings  ?  See  also  Dr.  Franklin's  account  of  what 
a  wise  old  Indian  chief  thought  of  the  whites. 

Perhaps  the  most  rational  division  of  discourse  is  the  following: — 
a.  That  which  depends  chiefly  on  place,  and  is  termed  description, 
h.  That  which  depends  chiefly  on  time,  and  is  termed  narrative. 

c.  That  which  aims  to  unfold  or  exhibit  the  nature  or  rationale 
of  things,  and  prevails  in  works  of  science  and  philosophy. 

d.  What  accompanies  each  of  these  for  the  sake  of  illustration, 
or  to  render  the  speaker's  meaning  more  intelligible  or  impressive. 

Any  of  the  first  three  mentioned,  may  predominate  in  the  dis- 
course, but  they  are  not  unfrequently  combined. 

1.  Discourse  may  usually  be  divided  into  paragraphs. 

2.  A  paragraph  is  a  portion  distinct  in  form  and  sense.  Para- 
graphs often  consist  of  two  or  more  sentences. 

3.  A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  by  words.  A  sentence  must 
comprise  words  sufficient  to  be  of  itself  complete  in  sense  and  gram- 
matical construction.  (A  nominative  in  one  sentence,  for  instance, 
can  never  be  the  subject  of  a  verb  in  another  sentence.) 

The  beginning  of  a  sentence  is  denoted  by  a  capital  letter ;  and  the  end,  usually  by  a 
period,  fin  interrogation-point,  or  an  exclamation-point. 

4.  Sentences  are  either  simple  or  compound ;  and  their  consti- 
tuent parts  are  words,  phrases,  and  propositions. 

5.  A  proposition  may  be  either  declarative,  imperative,  interroga- 
tive, or  exclamatory  ;  actual  or  contingent ;  positive  ov  negative  ;  in- 
dependent, principal,  subordinate,  or  coordinate ;  it  comprises  but 
one  subject  and  one  predicate,  though  either  or  both  may  be  com- 
pound or  modified  to  any  extent  whatsoever. 

6.  A  phrase  consists  of  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together, 
but  not  making  a  proposition  ;  and  it  generally  depends  on  some- 
thing else  for  complete  sense. 

1.  A  word  without  grammatical  relation  to  other  words,  or  a 
phrase  in  which  such  a  word  is  the  principal  one,  is  said  to  bo 
independent;  and,  if  it  implies  an  address,  it  is  sometimes  called  a 
compellative, — a  word  that  means  forcing  attention. 


312  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

8.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  proposition  ;  a  compound 
sentence^  two  or  more  propositions,  termed  clauses. 

9.  Two  or  more  clauses,  forming  a  distinct  part  of  a  compound 
sentence,  may  be  termed  a  member ;  and  so  may  the  remaining, 
words,  or  group  of  clauses. 

10.  A  member  or  a  sentence  that  has  a  dependent  clause,  may  be 
termed  a  complex  member  or  sentence. 

11.  A  sentence  not  making  sense  before  it  is  read  to  the  end,  is 
said  to  be  compact  or  periodic  in  structure ;  a  sentence  making  sense 
before  it  is  read  to  the  end,  is  said  to  be  loose  in  structure  ;  and 
parts  too  closely  connected  to  admit  even  the  comma,  may  be  said 
to  be  close  or  restrictive  in  structure. 

12.  The  distinct,  consecutive  sentences  of  discourse  are  coor- 
dinate ;  that  is,  they  stand  on  an  equal  footing,  or  are  not  conceived 
as  modifying  one  another. 

13.  The  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  of  sentences,  may  be  viewed 
as  principal,  subordinate,  or  coordinate  parts. 

14.  Principal  parts  are  modified  ;  subordinate  or  dependent  parts 
modify ;  coordinate  parts  are  generally  the  same  in  kind,  and  do  not 
modify  one  another — or  they  perform  the  same  office,  are  construed 
alike,  and  have  a  common  dependence  on  something  else. 

15.  Coordinate  parts  are  generally  construed  in  pairs  or  series^ 
and  connected  by  such  words  as  and,  or,  but. 

16.  A  phrase  without  a  connective,  or  word  to  show  its  depend- 
ence, may  be  said  to  be  connected  by  its  position ;  a  sentence  or 
clause,  by  simple  succession  ;  and  a  clause  so  intimately  connected 
with  a  finite  verb — (as  a  subject-nominative,  predicate-nominative, 
objective) — that  it  must  be  read  with  it  in  order  ta  analyze  the 
clause,  may  be  said  to  be  incorporated  into  the  sentence. 

IV.  The  compellative,  subject,  or  predicate,  taken  with  its  modifi- 
cations, grammarians  usually  call  the  logical  compellative,  subject, 
or  predicate ;  without  them,  the  grammatical  compellative,  subject, 
or  predicate. 

Every  proposition  or  clause  should  be  separated,  as  soon  as  possible,  into  its 
grammatical  subject  and  predicate ;  and  all  the  dependent  parts  should  tliou  be 
referred,  according  to  the  sense,  to  the  one  or  to  the  other. 

•  18.  The  syntax  of  sentences  is  best  considered  under  four  heads  ; 
relation,  government,  agreement,  and  position. 

19.  The  relation  of  words  is  their  reference  to  one  another  ac- 
cording to  the  sense. 

20.  Government  is  the  power  which  one  word  has  over  another 
in  determining  its  case,  person,  number,  or  some  other  property. 

21  Agreement  is  the  correspondence  of  one  word  with  another 
in  case,  person,  number,  or  some  other  property. 


ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES.  9}9 

22.  Position  refers  to  the  place  which  a  word  occupies  in  refer- 
ence to  other  words. 

THE  SrX  ELEMENTS. 

23.  Discourse  may  be  most  conveniently  analyzed,  by  resolving 
it  into  six  elements;  two  principal  elements,  two  modifying  ele- 
ments, a  connecting  element,  and  an  independent  element. 

24.  The  two  principal  elements  are  the  subject-nominatives  and 
the  predicate-verbs ;  both  of  which  are  easily  distinguished,  by  their 
form  and  sense,  from  the  other  parts. 

25.  Subject-nominatives  may  even  be  clauses,  but  predicate -verbs 
can  never  be  clauses. 

26.  The  modifying  elements  are  either  adjective  elements  or  ad- 
verbial elements. 

27.^  Any  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  that  modifies  a  substantive,  is 
an  adjective  element.     It  shows  of  what  kind  or  nature  the  object  is. 

28.  Any  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  that  modifies  a  verb,  (participle, 
infinitive,)  adjective,  adverb,  or  entire  predicate,  is  an  adverbial  ele- 
ment. It  generally  shows  the  place,  time,  manner,  degree,  condition, 
cause,  efi'ect,  purpose,  reason,  inference,  consequence,  object,  kind, 
quality,  respect  wherein,  etc.,  or  expresses  affirmation  or  negation. 
Its  chief  use  is,  to  make  with  the  predicate-verb  the  predicate. 
For  the  sake  of  greater  precision,  the  objective  elements  may  be  dis- 
criminated, as  such,  from  the  other  adverbial  elements. 

29.  The  connecting  elements  are  the  conjunctions,  the  preposi- 
tions, some  adverbs,  and  the  relative  pronouns.  Connectives  may 
perform,  additionally,  some  office  in  the  parts  to  which  they  be- 
long ;  they  may  be  expressed  or  omitted ;  they  may  be  used  singly 
or  in  pairs ;  they  may  consist  of  one  word  each,  or  of  a  phrase. 

30.  The  independent  element  may  be  a  substantive  denoting  what 
is  addressed,  or  w^hat  is  the  mere  subject  of  thought ;  or  it  may  be 
an  interjection ;  or  it  may  be  something  that  represents  an  entire 
sentence,  or  stands  as  the  fragment  of  a  sentence. 

31.  A  part  used  singly,  is  called  a  simple  element ;  a.  pair  or 
series  of  parts  is  called  a  compound  element ;  and  a  part  that  is 
modified  by  another,  makes  with  it  a  complex  element. 

32.  What  is  inverted  or  elliptical,  should  generally  be  analyzed 
as  if  it  stood  in  its  logical  order  or  fullness. 

33.  It  is  sometimes  not  easy  to  determine  whether  an  adjunct,  an  adjective,  or 
an  adjective  plirase ;  a  participle  or  a  participial  phrase ;  an  infinitive  or  an  infini- 
tive phrase, — should  be  referred  to  the  subject  or  to  the  predicate.  Consider 
carefully  what  constitutes  the  whole  of  that  of  which  the  affirmation  is  made; 
next  consider  what  constitutes  the  whole  of  that  which  is  strictly  affirmed. 
When  even  this  mode  of  judging  is  inadequate,  id  will  probably  be  a  matter  of 
little  consequence,  to  which  part  the  modification  is  referred. 


314  ANALYSIS    OP    SENTENCES. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Read  a  paragraph,  and  be  sure  that  you  clearly  and  fully  comprehend  it. 
If  it  is  expressed  not  in  the  most  ordinary  manner,  show  how  it  has  been  raised 
(by  equivalent  expressions,  arrangement,  ellipsis,  repetition,  expansion,  &c., 
figures,  versification. — See  pp.  258-98,)  from  the  plain,  logical  sense  and  order, 
to  the  rhetorical.  Next  sliow  how  the  sense  has  been  brought  out  to  the  best 
advantage  by  the  aid  of  punctuation  and  of  capital  letters. 

2.  Read  the  first  sentence.  Is  it  simple  or  compound  f  Is  it  declarative,  inter- " 
rogaiive,  imperative,  exclamatory,  or  a  composite  of  these?  consisting  of  what 
members,  and  how  connected  ?  Find  the  compellative ;  find  the  principal  clause 
by  considering  carefully  what  it  was  that  was  chiefly  to  be  said ;  (in  exclama- 
torj^,  imperative,  or  interrogative  sentences,  the  principal  clause  is  generally 
mere  easily  found  by  imagiuing  them  to  be  declarative ;)  and  dispose  of  all  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  as  adverbial  or  adjective  modifications.  Every  clause  that  can 
not  be  treated  as  a  modifying  element,  must  be  considered  a  coordinate  clause ; 
and  when  two  clauses  so  modify  each  other  that  it  can  not  be  told  which  is  the 
principal,  the  two  may  be  treated  as  mutually  dependent,  or  as  correlative. 

Begin  with  the  distinct  clauses  or  independent  phrases ;  take  not  more  than 
is  sufficient  for  one  analysis;  invert  parts,  if  necessary,  and  supply  whatever 
words  are  needed  ;  and  then  state  what  kind  of  clause  it  is,  connected  by  what 
•^(word,  simple  succession,  incorporated  into  the  sentence) —  to  what,  as  a  co- 
ordinate or  as  a  subordinate  element ;  and,  if  subordinate,  whether  it  performs 
the  ollice  of  a  sub.stantive,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

3.  Next  proceed  according  to  the  i'ormulas  on  p.  304, 

4.  Analyze  the  sub-parts ;  then  take  the  next  clause,  and  proceed  in  a  similar 
manner,  and  so  on  until  the  sentence  is  exhausted.  A  series  of  finite  verbs, 
however  long  or  modified,  should  generally  be  treated  as  one  predicate,  if  not 
parted  by  a  nominative  expressed.  By  doing  so,  the  process  of  analysis  will  be 
much  simplified.  The  same  remark  applies  to  a  series  of  nominatives.  "When 
the  sentence  is  analyzed,  parse  the  words  according  to  the  Formulas  heretofore 
given ;  that  is,  mention  the  part  of  speech,  the  kind,  the  properties,  the  relations 
to  other  words,  the  Rule.  This  is  the  analysis  of  words,  viewed  as  constructive 
elements  of  sentences.  They  may,  after  they  are  parsed,  be  further  analyzed  and 
described  as  follows : — 

Tell  whether  primitive,  derivative,  or  compound;  from  what  derived,  of 
v/hat  compounded ;  the  radical,  the  prefix,  the  suffix,  their  meaning,  euphonic 
changes ;  the  primary  meaning,  and  thence  by  what  figure  or  figures  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word  aa  used  in  the  paragraph  before  you ;  mention  the  conjugates ; 
the  synonyms,  and  how  it  dilfers  fi-om  them;  tell,  if  compound,  why  it  is 
hyphened  or  consolidated.     Is  the  word  the  best  the  author  could  have  used  ? 

5.  Tell  whether  a  monosyllable,  dissyllable,  etc. ;  which  syllable  has  the  chief 
accent,  and  which  the  weaker ;  whether  the  word  is  of  Saxon  origin,  of  Latin, 
Greek,  French,  etc. ;  whether  it  is  harsh,  soft,  imitative,  familiar,  uncommon, 
popular,  technical,  etc. 

6.  Verse,  as  such,  may  be  analyzed  and  described  thus : — 

Say  that  it  is  verse,  and  why ;  tell  whether  it  is  blank  verso  or  rhyming  verse, 
and  why ;  whether  composed  in  couplets,  triplets,  or  stanzas ;  how  many  lines 
to  the  stanza,  how  they  rhyme  together,  and — if  it  has  a  name — what  is  the 
stanza  called ;  of  how  many  and  what  feet  does  each  line  consist,  and  to  what 
does  it  rhyme,  with  what  sort  of  rhyme  ;  what  hcenses  or  deviations. 

When  any  word  or  expression  of  such  a  mongrel  or  peculiar  nature  occurs, 
that  no  principle  of  grammar  applies  directly  to  it,  it  will  bo  sufficient  simply  to 
show  its  iiae  in  the  sentence;  that  is,  its  meaning,  and  its  relation  to  the  other 
porta. 


PUNCTUATION.  815 

i  7     PUNCTUATION.* 

Puiactuatsoti  is  the  art  of  applying  certain  points  or  marks  to 
literary  composition,  in  such  a  way  as  will  present  the  sense  and  de- 
livery to  the  best  advantage.  The  chief  use  of  points  is  to  denote 
pauses. 

The  division  into  sentences,  and  parts  of  sentences,  is  made  chiefly  according 
to  the  grammatical  sense,  though  it  is  sometimes  influenced  by  delivery;  as, 
"Approach,  and  behold,   while  I  lift  from  his  sepulchre  its  covering!" — Dr. 

It  may  be  well  to  remark,  at  the  outset,  that  punctuation  must  necessarily 
vary  with  all  the  varieties  of  style;  and  that  sometimes  the  same  paragraph  may 
be  difl'erently  punctuated,  and  correctly  too,  according  to  the  view  that  is  taken 
of  it.  Indeed,  it  seems  that  capitals,  Italics,  and  punctuation-marks  generally, 
have  acquired,  like  words,  various  meanings ;  so  that  we  are  at  liberty  to  use 
them,  and  do  use  them,  much  in  the  same  way  as  we  use  words ;  every  person 
presenting  his  thoughts  by  their  aid,  of  course  with  more  or  less  advantage,  ac- 
cording to  his  knowledge  of  their  various  meanings  and  uses.  Uniformity,  bow- 
ever,  is  a  primary  law;  and  the  entire  subject  of  punctuation  is  certainly  some- 
thing more  than  "  a  matter  of  taste."  We  should  at  least  be  careful  not  to  use 
any  notation  unnecessarily,  not  to  use  one  notation  where  a  difl'erent  one  would 
express  the  sense  better,  and  not  to  use  the  same  notation — ^aa  the  dash  is  some- 
times used — hx  contradictory  senses. 


The  principal  marks  of  punctuation  are  the  following  twelve : — 

The  dash ( 

The  curves ( 


The  period (  .  ), 

The  semicolon ( 5 ), 


The  colon (  :),   The  curves (  ())> 

The  brackets ([]), 

The  hyphen (  -  ), 

The  quotation-marks. , .(  ''  "  or  '  '  ), 
The  underscore . .  ( ,„..«„a„«_„a«,..«. ) . 


The  comma ( ,  ) 

The  interrogation-point .  (  ?  ), 
The  exclamation-point. .  (  !  ), 

In  applying  these  marks,  discourse  may  be  viewed  as  composed 
of  paragraphs,  sentences,  clauses,  phrases,  v^ords,  and  parts  of  words ; 
all  of  which  may  be  briefly  termed  parts. 

The  pauses  are  relative  rather  than  absolute.  The  semicolon  requires  a  pause 
double  that  of  the  comma ;  the  colon,  double  that  of  the  semicolon ;  and  the 
period,  double  that  of  the  colon,  and  sometimes  even  longer.  Most  of  the  other 
points  require  pauses  that  depend  chiefly  on  the  sen^e.  Grave  or  solemn  dis- 
course requires  longer  pauses  than  that  which  is  lively  and  spirited. 


The  division  of  his  discourse  into  volumes,  books,  parts,  cantos, 
verses,  chapters,  sections,  paragraphs,  and  sentences,  is  left  chiefly  to 
every  writer's  own  taste  and  judgment. 

*  It  13  said  that  Aldus  Manutius  and  his  grandson,  two  printers  of  Venice,  devised  Italics 
and  the  four  principal  points,  about  the  beginning.of  tlie  flt'teenth  century.  The  interroeatioo 
and  exclamation  points  are  ascribed  to  SnaDish  printers,  and  the  dash  has  been  aticribed  It^ 
the  French.— Period  means,  literally,  a  circuit  of  words;  oolon.  a  tnembjer i  RKH^cojifOi^ 
lull/ a  member;  and  comma,  apart  cut  of.    See  Metonymy,  p.  268. 

14* 


319  PUNCTUATION. PERIOD. 

A  paragraph  always  begins  anew,  and  consists  of  one  or  more  sentences,  com- 
prising usually  all  that  relates  to  one  subject.  Paragraphs  are  commonly  kept 
apart  by  short  breaks,  or  blank  spaces. 

A  sentence  must  be  complete,  in  sense  and  construction,  with  reference  to 
what  precedes  it  or  follows  it.  It  is,  in  general,  so  much  of  the  author's  dis- 
course as  be  cliooses  to  present  as  one  thought. 


1.  PERIOD. 

1.  The  period  is  put  at  the  end  of  every  complete  sentence  that 
is  not  interrogative  or  exclamatory. 

Ex. — "  Begin  and  end  with  God." 

"  If  the  counsel  is  good,  no  matter  who  gave  it." 

"  As  yet,  the  forests  stand  clothed  in  their  dress  of  undecayed  magnificence. 
The  winds,  that  rustle  through  theu-  tops,  scarcely  disturb  the  silence  of  the 
shades  below.  The  mountains  and  the  vaUeys  glow  in  warm  green,  of  lively 
russet."— J".  Story. 

Exercises.* — "  He  that  wants  health,  wants  every  thing" 
"  Give,  then,  generously  and  freely    recollect,  that,  m  so  doing,  you  are  ex- 
ercising one  of  the  most  godlike  qualities  in  your  nature     go  homo,  and  look  at 
your  families,  smiling  in  rosy  health,  and  then  think  of  the  pale,  famine-pinched 
cheeks  of  the  poor  children  of  Ireland" — S.  S.  Prentiss 

2.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  separate  sentences  closely  allied  in 
sense  and  construction. 

Ex. — "  The  character  of  Washington  is  among  the  most  cherished  contem- 
plations of  my  life.  It  is  a  fixed  star  in  the  firmament  of  great  names,  shining  with- 
out twinkling  or  obscuration,  with  clear,  steady,  beneficent  light.  It  is  associated 
with  all  our  reflections  on  things  near  and  dear  to  us." —  Webster. 

Such  sentences  were  formerly  often  separated  by  the  colon,  and  are  now  some- 
times separated  by  the  semicolon. 

Exercises. — "  No  man  ever  lived  under  a  more  abiding  sense  of  responsi- 
bility no  man  strove  more  faithfully  to  use  time  and  talent  as  ever  in  the  great 
Taskmaster's  eye  no  man,  so  richly  endowed,  was  ever  less  ready  to  trust  in 
his  own  powers,  or  more  prompt  to  own  his  dependence  oa  his  Maker" — Review  : 
Milton 

3.  It  sometimes  separates  sentences  even  when  connected  by  con- 
junctions. 

Ex. — "  It  may  be  that  the  submissive  loyalty  of  our  fathers  was  preferable  to 
that  inquiring,  censuring,  resisting  spirit  that  is  abroad.  And  so  it  may  be  that 
infancy  is  a  happier  period  than  manhood,  and  manhood  than  old  age.  But 
(iod  has  decreed  that  old  age  shall  succeed  to  manhood,  and  manhood  to  infancy. 
Even  so  societies  have  their  law  of  growth." — Afacaulay. 

Sentences  of  this  structure  are  also  sometimes  separated  by  the  semicolon,  or, 
where  a  greater  point  is  needed,  by  the  colon. 

Exercises. — "  This  scene  is  worth  a  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  yet  here, 
as  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Natural  Bridge,  are  people  who  have  passed  theif 
lives  within  half  a  dozen  miles,  and  have  never  been  to  survey  these  monuments 
of  a  war  between  rivers  and  mountains,  which  must  have  shaken  the  earth 
itself  to  its  centre" — Jefferson 

♦  Insort  poUiW  and  capital  letters,  or  whatever  is  needed  to  inak«  the  examples  correct. 


PUNCTUATION. PERIOD.  31? 

4.  It  is  sometimes  put  modestly  after  a  sentence  that  is  expressed, 
for  the  sake  of  greater  force,  in  the  interrogative  or  exclamatory 
form,  though  declarative  in  sense  ;  or  when  the  interrogation  or  ex- 
clamation point  would  be  too  forcible. 

Ex. — "  To  be  a  rebel  or  a  schismatic,  was  surely  not  all  that  ought  to  be  re- 
quired of  a  man  in  high  employment.  What  would  become  of  the  finances, 
what  of  the  marine,  if  the  Whigs  who  could  not  understand  the  plainest  balance- 
sheet  were  to  manage  the  revenue,  and  Whigs  who  had  never  walked  over  a 
dock -yard  to  fit  out  the  fleet." — Macaulay. 

Exercises — "I  thought  my  new  acquirements  would  enable  me  to  seethe 
ladies  with  tolerable  intrepidity ;  but,  alas  1  how  vain  are  all  the  hopes  of  theory, 
when  unsupported  by  habitual  practice" — Eclectic  Magazine 

5.  It  is  used  to  separate  words  and  phrases,  when  put  for  such  en- 
tire sentences  as  any  of  the  foregoing. 

Ex. — "^t.  19  +.  Tender-eyed  blonde.  Long  ringlets.  Cameo  pin.  Gold 
pencil-case  on  a  chain.  Locket.  Bracelet.  Album.  Autograph  book.  Ac- 
cordion. Reads  Byron,  Tupper,  and  Sylvanus  Cobb,  junior,  while  her  mother 
makes  the  puddings.  Says,  'Yes?'  when  you  tell  her  anything." — 0.  W. 
Holmes. 

Exercises. — "  Out  with  the  boat    here    to  the  left    that  will  do" 

6.  It  is  put  after  any  word  or  phrase  complete  by  itself,  or  suffi- 
ciently significant  alone ;  as,  headings,  signatures,  titles,  directions, 
imprints,  advertisements,  etc. 

Ex. — "For  Sale."  "Opinions  of  the  Press."  "Dr.  B.  Bruns,  Chairman." 
"  To  the  Honorable  the  Legislature  of  Virginia."  "St.  Louis,  Aug.  1st,  1857." 
"  The  History  of  £]ngland,  from  the  Accession  of  James  the  Second.  By  Thomas 
Babington  Macaulay.  ,  Volume  L    Philadelphia :  E.  H.  Butler  &  Co.     1860." 

Exercises.— "  Contents"  "ApoUo  Garden"  "Prom  Punch"  "Yours, 
truly,  John  Griscom"  "  To  the  Hon  Edward  Bates"  "  H  Clay,  Select  Speeches 
of  8vo  Price  $1  00"  "  Popular  Astronomy  By  0  M  Mitchell,  LLD  New 
York:  Phinney,  Blakeman,  and  Mason     1860" 

"  Archbishop     What  is  your  business,  friend  ? 

"  Gil  Bias    I  am  the  young  man  who  was  recommended  to  you" 

V.  The  period  is  put  after  every  abbreviation,  and  then  supersedes 
no  point  except  itself. 

Ex.— "Albany,  N.  Y.,  Sept.,  1860."  "Henry  Holmes,  Esq.,  addressed  the 
assembly."     "Sir  David  Brewster,  K.  H.,  LL.D.,  P.R.S.,  L.  &  E." 

Exercises.— "T  S  Glover,  Esq,  was  called  to  the  chair"  "To  Mr  and  Mrs 
Lindsay"  "  Dr  I  P  Vaughan"  "At  7  o'clock,  'P  M"  "To  the  Hon  Wra  B 
Stark,  Sup't  of  Com  Schools"     "  On  the  4tli  inst  he  disappeared" 

a.  In  compound  numbers,  the  period  usually  supersedes  the  comma. 
Ex.—"  7  T.  3  cwt.  2  qr.  8  lb.  3  oz."— i).  P.    GoVmrn.     "  £1.  10s.  6d."— 

Wilson. 

b.  When  the  abbreviation  becomes  itself  a  word,  the  period  is 
not  used. 

Ex.—"  Will  Hardman  had  three  sons ;  Tom,  Ned,  and  George.''— Eawkes- 
worth.     "  20  per  cent  advance." 

Exercises.—"  Rare  Ben  Johnson"  "Gen  Tom  Thumb"  "Pants  were  made 
for  geiiis"     "On  the  1st  ipst,  stocks  were  5  per  cent  below  par" 


318  PUNCTUATION. —  COLON. 

Such  expressions  as  1st,  2d,  2dly,  4th,  5th,  do  not  take  the  abbreviating  period  ; 
tor  they  are  not  so  much  abbreviations  as  they  are  cardinal  numbers  made  ordinal. 

8.  The  period  is  put  at  the  end  of  figures  or  letters  that  introduce 
enumerated  parts. 

Ex.—"  125.  The  Discontented  Pendulum."  "Lesson  LXL— On  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Tongue."  "I  have  two  good  reasons:  1.  I  can  not  give  my  atten- 
tion to  it;  2.  I  have  no  money  to  invest  in  it."  "  Of  this  species  there  are  two 
varieties :  (a.)  The  preposition  and  present  participle ;  (6.)  The  preposition  and 
perfect  participle." — S.  S.  Greene. 

Exercises. — "lis  Practical  Jokes"  "Let  us  consider — 1  Its  soil;  2  Its 
climate." 

a.  The  period  is  generally  preferred,  for  the  sake  of  neatness,  after 
Roman  or  Arabic  numerals,  though  the  comma  or  the  semicolon  would 
often  be  more  accurate ;  as,  "  Isa.  Iv.  3  ;  Ezek.  xviii.  20." 

9.  The  period  separates  decimals  from  whole  numbers. 
Ex.—"  42.75  yds.,  for  $9,055  +." 

Exercises. — "The  young  lady  at  the  blackboard  answered,  that  40  chickens, 
at  12  cents  each,  cost  $480." 

2.  COLON. 

1.  The  colon  is  tlie  intermediate  point  between  the  period  and 
tbe  semicolon. 

Ex. — "  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some  few 
to  be  chewed  and  digested :  that  is,  some  books  are  to  be  read  only  in  parts ; 
others  to  be  read,  but  not  curiously ;  and  some  few  to  be  read  wholly  and  with 
dihgence." — Bacon. 

Exercises. — A  wicked  man,  in  his  iniquitous  plans,  either  fails  or  suc- 
ceeds if  he  fails,  disappointment  is  embittered  by  reproach  ;  if  he  succeeds,  suc:- 
cess  is  without  pleasure,  for,  when  he  looks  around,  he  sees  no  smile  of  con- 
gratulation.— Ecvrper's  Magazine, 

We  have  but  faith   we  can  not  know^  . 
For  knowledge  is  of  things  we  see; 
And  yet  we  trust  it  comes  from  thee 
A  beam  in  darkness   lot  it  grow. — Tennyson. 

2.  It  is  put  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  complete  in  sense,  to  which 
is  annexed  some  additional  remark  or  further  explanation  ;  especially 
when  the  conjunction  is  omitted.  In  this  sense  it  answers  to  How 
BO  ?     Why  so?     Explain  more  fully  what  you  mean. 

Ex. — "Our  good  and  evil  proceed  from  ourselves:  death  appeared  terrible 
to  Cicero,  indifferent  to  Socrates,  desirable  to  Cato." — Britifih  EssayiaLs. 
"Princes  have  courtiers,  and  merchants  have  partners;  the  voluptuous  have 
companions,  and  tlie  wicked  have  accomplices :  none  but  the  virtuous  can  havo 
friends. ' ' — Johnson. 

"With  diadem  and  sceptre  high  advanced, 
The  lower  still  I  fall ;  only  supreme 
In  misery :  such  joy  ambition  finds." — Milton. 
Exercises. — What  a  fool  am  I  to  drudge  any  more  at  this  woollen  trade  I 
for  a  lawyer  I  was  born,  and  a  lawyer  I  will  be    one  is  never  too  old  to  learn. 
—Arhuthnot.     With  regard  to  the  faults  of  others,  however,  we  say  'fear'    "  I 
^orhe  may  be  led  into  such  and  such  an  action." — Whaiely. 


PUNCTUATION. — COLON.  319 

Dear  "Welsted,  mark,  in  dirty  hole, 
■  That  painful  animal,  the  mole 

Above  ground  never  born  to  grow, 
What  mighty  stir  he  keeps  below  i — Pope. 

3.  It  is  put  at  tbe  end  of  whatever  formally  promises  or  introduces 
something,  and  ends  with  as  follows,  the  following,  thisy  these,  thus, 
or  suggests  such  a  meaning. 

Ex. — "  Of  cruelty  to  animals,  let  the  reader  take  the  following  specimen : — 
Running  an  iron  hook  into  the  intestines  of  a  live  animal ;  presenting  this  ani- 
mal to  another  as  his  food ;  and  then  pulling  up  this  second  creature,  and  sus- 
pending him  by  the  barb  in  his  stomach." — Sydney  Smith. 

"There  are  two  questions  which  grow  out  of  this  subject:  1st,  How  far  is 
any  sort  of  classical  education  useful  ?  2dly,  How  far  is  that  particular  classi- 
cal education  adopted  in  this  country  useful  ?" — Id. 

Exercises. — This  is  the  state  of  man  to-day  he  puts  forth 

'  The  tender  leaves  of  hope  ;  to-morrow  blossoms, 
And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him  ; 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost. — Shakespeare. 
Mr.  "Wirt  then  rose,  and  began  thus 
^^ Alumni  of  the  University,  ladies,  and  gentlemen 
"  The  occasion,"  etc. 

4.  Hence  it  is  generally  used  to  introduce  a  quoted  paragraph 
or  discourse. 

Ex. —  "  '  The  Press  I— What  is  the  Press  ?'  I  cried ; 

When  thus  a  wondrous  voice  replied : 
'  In  me  all  human  knowledge  dwells, 
The  oracle  of  oracles,'"  etc. — Montgomery. 
"He  said  to  the  men  who  carried  away  his  trunk  to  the  boat:  '  G-o,  and 
fetch  back  my  trunk ;  I  will  not  go  if  my  mother  is  to  be  made  unhappy  by 
it.'  " — Irving^s  Washington. 

The  comma  should  be  preferred,  when  there  is  a  close  dependence,  and  but  a 
single  quoted  sentence ;  as,  "  He  said,  '  I  will  abide  the  consequences.' 
Exercises. — But  Douglas  round  him  drew  his  cloak, 
Folded  his  arms,  and  thus  he  spoke 
My  manors,  hulls,  and  towers,  shall  still 
Be  open  at  my  sovereign's  will,  etc. — Scott. 

5.  It  has  been  frequently  used  to  separate  a  figure  from  what 

it  illustrates. 

Ex.— "  Ambition  often  puts  men  upon  performing  the  meanest  offices:  so 
climbing  and  creeping  are  performed  in  the  same  posture."— /Su;?/!!. 
Exercises.— Small  service  is  true  service  while  it  lasts ; 
Of  friends,  however  humble,  scorn  not  ono 
The  daisy,  by  the  shadow  that  it  casts,  ^    ^      ^, 

Protects  the  lingering  dew-drop  from  the  sua—  Wordsworih. 

6  It  was  formerly  much  used,  and  is  now  sometimes  used,  to 
separate  complete  sentences  that  are  more  closely  allied  to  one 
another  than  to  what  precedes  or  follows  them.  In  this  sense, 
the  semicolon  or  the  period  is  now  often  preferred.- 

Kx  -"  Property  is  private,  individual,  absolute.  Trade  is  an  extended  and 
complicated  consideration:  it  reaches  as  far  as  ships  can  sinl  or  wmds  can  blow: 


320  PUNCTUATION. COLON. 

it  is  a  great  and  various  machine.  To  regulate  the  numberless  movements,' 
etc. —  Ohatham. 

"That  was  enough  :  the  spark  had  fallen  :  the  tram  was  ready  :  the  explo- 
sion was  immediate  and  terrible." — Macaulay. 

"  It  is  an  intensely  cold  chmate  that  is  sufficient  to  freeze  quicksilver  :  the 
chmate  of  Siberia  is  sufficient  to  freeze  quicksilver :  therefore  the  climate  of  Si- 
beria is  intensely  cold." — Whately. 

But  Sir  William  Hamilton  writes,  "  He  who  conscientiously  performs  his  dnty 
is  a  truly  good  man  ;  Socrates  conscientiously  performs  his  duty  ;  therefore  Socra- 
tes is  a  good  man." 

Exercises. — Lightning  takes  the  readiest  and  best  conductor ;  so  does  the 
electrical  fluid  lightning  bums  ;  so  does  electricity  lightning  sometimes  destroys 
life  animals  have  also  been  killed  by  lightning. — Eclectic  Magazine. 

*1.  In  the  grave  or  formal  style,  it  is  used  after  the  address 
which. stands  next  to  the  beginning  of  a  letter  or  other  writing. 

Ex. — "  Hon.  Edward  Everett. 

''Dear  Sir: 

"  I  thank  you  for  your,  etc. 

"  Joseph  Story." 
In  the  familiar  style,  the  comma,  or  the  comma  with  the  dash,  is  often  preferred. 
Ex.—"  Deak  SiE, 

"  The  latest  news  from  Boston,  giving  information,  etc. 

"  James  Madison." 
There  is  great  diversity  as  to  the  mode  of  punctuating  such  phrases.  When 
the  period  is  put  after  tlie  first  address,  it  shows  simply  to  whom  the  letter  is  sent, 
which  then  begins  with  the  next  address ;  but  when  an  inferior  point  is  placed 
after  the  first  phrase,  the  person  is  addressed  by  name  as  if  he  were  present  to  the 
writer.  The  neatest  form  seems  to  be  that  of  putting  a  period  after  the  first  ad- 
dress, and  a  comma  after  the  second,  if  the  phrases  occupy  different  lines  ;  and  a 
period  with  a  dash  after  the  first,  and  a  colon  after  the  second,  if  they  are  in  the 
same  line  with  the  beginning  of  the  letter. 
"  George  W.  Tayloe,  Esq. 

'■'•  Dear  Sir, 

"  As  you  write  me  to  give,"  etc. 
"  George  W.  Taylor,  Esq. — Dear  Sir  /'As  you  write  mo,  to  give  my  opinion," 
etc. — The  Printer. 

8.  It  is  used  after  words  or  phrases  that  stand  at  the  beginning 
of  sentences,  and  have  the  sense  referred  to  in  the  third  rule  of  this 
section.  Indeed,  the  chief  use  of  the  colon  is,  to  show  that  the 
part  before  it  is  incomplete  and  promissory,  and  that  the  part  after 
it  contains  the  main  thought,  or  an  important  appendage  to  it. 

Ex. — "For  example:  'When  the  verb  is  a  passive,  the  agent  and  object 
cliange  places.'  Better:  When  the  verb  is  passive^  the  agent  and  the  object 
change  places." — G.  Brown. 

"No:  this  is  not  learning:  it  is  chemistry  or  political  economy — not  learn- 
ing."— Eclectic  Magazine. 

Exercises.— To  sum  up  all     if  we  must,  etc. 

Terms     Three  Dollars  a  Year,  invariably  in  Advance. 

It  is  sometimes  put  between  a  subject  and  what  is  said  of  it. 

Ex. — "  Kansas :  wliat  can  you  say  of  it  ?" — School  Geography.  This  usage 
does  not  seem  to  be  well  established. 

9.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  separate  the  name  of  a  person  or  thing 
from  that  of  the  locality  ;  or  a  second  reference  from  a  first. 


PUNCTUATION. — SEMICOLON.  821 

Ex.— "A  layer  of  Slate  ia  Hornblende :  Cornwall,  England:'— Hitchcock. 
Exercises.— "  London     Partridge  &  Co."     "EdgarA.  PoB     The  Pioneer:^ 
But,  in  phrases  like  the  following,  the  comma  ia  used :  "  To  Wm.  Holmes, 
No  25,  Spruce  Street." 

It  is  sometimes  used,  though  improperly,  as  a  mark  of  abbreviation. 

Ex.— "To  Chas:  D.  Drake,  Esq.";  better,  "To  Chas.  D.  Drake,  Esq." 

10.  It  is  used  as  the  sign  of  proportion. 

Ex. — 2  :  4  :  :  3  :  6  =  As  two  is  to  four,  so  three  is  to  six. 

The  colon,  in  most  of  its  senses,  is  akin  to  the  dash ;  and  hence,  when  the 
pause  wliich  accompanies  the  colon  would  be  too  long,  the  dash  is  sometimea 
preferred. 

3.  SEMICOLON. 

1.  The  semicolon  is  used  as  the  next  greater  point  than  the  cora- 
ma,  or  as  intermediate  between  the  comma  and  the  colon  or  period. 

It  is  often  used  when  related  parts  already  have  the  comma,  and 
a  greater  point  is  needed. 

Ex. — ""Without  dividing,  he  destroyed  party;  without  corrupting,  he  made 
a  venal  age  unanimous." — Grattan. 

"  The  Indians  are  taken  by  surprise  :  some  are  shot  down  in  their  cabins  ; 
others  rush  to  the  river,  and  are  drowned;  others  push  from  the  shore  in  their 
birchen  canoes,  and  are  hurried  down  the  cataract," — Bancroft. 

Exercises. — if  it  was  intended  for  us  as  well  as  for  you,  why  has  not  the 
Great  Spirit  given  it  to  us  and  not  only  to  us,  but  why  did  he  not  give  to  our 
forefothers  the  knowledge  of  that  book  with  the  means  of  rightly  understanding 
iVl—E.  Everett. 

A  love  of  equality  is  another  strong  principle  in  a  republic  therefore  it  does 
not  tolerate  hereditary  honor  or  wealth  and  all  the  effect  produced  on  the  minds 
of  the  people  by  this  fictitious  power  is  lost,  and  the  government  weakened  but, 
in  proportion  as  the  government  is  less  able  to  command,  the  people  should  be 
more  willing  to  obey. — British  Essayists. 

2.  It  frequently  separates  two  clauses,  connected  by  hut,  for ^  and, 
or  some  other  connective,  when  they  are  not  very  closely  dependent 
on  each  other. 

Ex. — '•  That  the  world  is  overrun  with  vice,  can  not  be  denied ;  but  vice, 
however  predominant,  has  not  yet  gained  ualimited  dominion." — Johnson. 

"  Keep  thine  heart  with  all  diligence ;  for  out  of  it  are  the  issues  of  life." — 
Bible. 

"  He  is,  indeed,  a  horse ;  and  all  the  other  jades  you  may  call  beasts." — 
Shalcespeare. 

a.  The  conjunction  or  connective  is  sometimes  omitted. 

Ex. — "  The  miser  grows  rich  by  seeming  poor ;  an  extravagent  man  grows 
poor  by  seeming  rich." — Proverb. 

Exercises. — "  The  town  was  set  on  fire  and  a  witness  of  the  scene  relates 
that  two  thousand  Indians  were  slain,  suffocated,  or  burned." — Bancroft. 

Napoleon  was  an  early  riser  so  were  Frederick  the  Great,  Charles  the 
Twelfth,  and  "Washington. 

When  the  latter  part  is  a  mere  phrase,  the  comma  is  preferred  before  it,  even 
when  the  part  itself  is  subdivided  by  the  comma. 

Ex.—"  And  therefore  will  I  take  the  Nevil's  part,  and,  when  I  spy  advantage, 
claim  the  crown." — Shalcespeare. 


322  PUNCTUATION. — SEMICOLON. 

3.  It  is  used  to  separate  short  related  sentences,  when  two  or 
more  of  these  are  gathered  into  one  sentence. 

Ex. — "  Listen  to  the  advice  of^your  parents ;  treasure  up  their  precepts  ;  re- 
spect their  riper  judgment ;  and  endeavor  to  merit  the  approbation  of  the  wise 
and  good." 

"  On  the  land  were  large  flocks  of  magpies  and  American  robins ;  whole 
fleets  of  ducks  and  geese  navigated  the  river,  or  flew  off  in  long  streaming  files ; 
while  the  frequent  establishment  of  the  pains- taking  beaver  showed  that  the 
solitudes  of  these  waters  were  seldom  disturbed  even  by  the  all-pervading  savage." 
— Irving. 

Exercises. — He  suffered  much  oppression  he  was  often  imprisoned  he  was 
finally  compelled  to  go  into  exile. — Macaulay. 

Epic  poetry  recites  the  exploits  of  heroes  tragedy  represents  disastrous  events 
comedy  ridicules  the  vices  and  follies  of  mankind  pastoral  poetry  describes 
rural  life  and  elegy  displays  the  tender  emotions  of  the  heart. 

4.  Either  of  the  principal  elements,  and,  generally,  any  of  the 
modifying  elements,  can  be  so  extended  as  to  make  a  loose  series, 
whose  parts  may  be  separated  by  the  semicolon,  especially  if  any  of 
them  are  subdivided  by  the  comma.  This  has  been  called  the  enu- 
merative  sense.     The  dash  is  sometimes  used,  though  less  properly. 

Ex. — "To  give  an  early  preference  to  honor  above  gain,  when  they  stand  in 
competition  ;  to  despise  every  advantage  which  can  not  be  gained  without  dis- 
honest arts  ;  to  brook  no  meanness,  and  stoop  to  no  dissimulation, — are  the  in- 
dications of  a  great  mind." 

"  As  a  traveler,  Smith  had  roamed  over  Prance ;  had  visited  the  shores  of 
Egypt ;  had  returned  to  Italy ;  and,  pautmg  for  glory,  had  sought  the  borders  of 
Hungary,  where  had  long  existed  an  heredtary  warfare  with  the  followers  of  Ma- 
homet."— Bancroft 

"'I  have  always,'  says  Ledyard,  'remarked  that  women  in  all  countries  aro 
civil  and  obliging,  tender  and  humane ;  that  they  are  ever  inclined  to  be  gay  and 
cheerful,  timorous  and  modest ;  and  that  they  do  not  hesitate,  like  men,  to  per- 
form a  generous  action.'  " 

Exercises. — The  disposition  to  insult  and  mockery  is  awakened  by  the 
softness  of  foppery,  the  swell  of  insolence,  the  liveliness  of  levity,  or  the  solemnity 
of  grj^ndeur  by  the  sprightly  trip,  the  stately  stalk,  the  formal  strut,  and  the 
lofty  mien  by  gestures  intended  to  catch  the  eye,  and  looks  elaborately  formed 
as  evidence  of  importance. — Johnson. 

A  salad  should  be,  as  to  its  contents,  multifarious  as  to  its  proportions,  an 
artistic  harmony  as  to  its  flavor,  of  a  certain  pungent  taste. — Ec.  Magazine. 

False  in  institutions,  for  he  retrograded  false  in  policy,  for  he  debased  false  in 
morals,  for  he  corrupted  false  in  civilization,  for  he  debased. — Lama/rtine. 

5_.  An  explanatory  or  appositive  phrase,  an  adjective  phrase,  a 
participial  phrase,  or  any  other  phrase,  especially  when  elliptical,  or 
subdivided  by  the  comma,  is  often  set  off  by  the  semicolon. 

Ex. — "It  was  a  voyage  of  discovery;  a  circumnavigation  of  charity."— 
Burke. 

''  Mercer  was  upright,  intelligent,  and  brave ;  esteemed  as  a  soldier  and  be- 
loved as  a  man,  and  by  none  more  so  than  by  Washington." — Irving. 

"  Charles  the  TweU'th,  of  Sweden;  born,  1682 ;  killed  by  a  cannon-ball,  ITIS." 

Exercises. — Eloquence  is  action  noble,  sublime,  godlike  action. —  Webster. 

I  assure  you  I  will  never  go  to  see  her  no,  not  l.—Edgeworth. 

There  are  three  persons  tlie  first,  the  second,  and  the  third. — 0.  Brown. 


PUNCTUATION. — COMMA.  819 

This  lovely  land,  this  glorious  liberty,  these  benign  institutions,  are  ours  oura 
to  enjoy,'  ours  to  preserve,  ours  to  transmit. —  Webster. 

I  will  never  give  my  consent  to  such  an  undertaking  never,  never,  never  1 — 
Chatham. 

He  is  my  major-domo  that  is,  my  steward,  or  superintendent  over  household 
afifairs. — Prescott. 

Among  the  oaks,  I  observed  many  of  the  most  diminutive  size  some  not 
above  a  foot  high,  yet  bearing  bunches  of  small  acorns. — Irving. 

6.  It  is  generally  used  before  as,  introducing  an  example. 
Ex.—"  Can  signifies  ability;  as,  'I  can  read.'  " 

Exercises. -Not  wet  as, "Dry  hay"  "Dry  wood." — Worcester. 

7.  The  semicolon,  considered  simply  as  a  greater  point  than  the 
comma,  is  much  applied  to  phrases,  or  series  of  phrases,  that  are  not 
emotional.     See  p.  ^30. 

Ex. — "  The  Minstrel ;  or,  The  Progi-ess  of  Genius." — Beattie. 

"  State  vs.  John  O'Neal,  larceny  ;  dismissed." — Newspaper. 

"Inestimable.  Too  valuable  or  excellent  to  be  rated ;  beuig  above  all  price.; 
as,  'inestimable  rights.' " — N.  Webster. 

"  A  dress  of  blue  silk  ;  plain,  high  body  ;  the  waist  and  point  of  a  moderate 
length ;  the  skirt  long  and  full,  with  two  broad  flounces  pinked  at  the  edge." — 
Harper's  Magazine. 

"Contents:  Fate;  Power;  Wealth;  Culture;  Behavior;  Worship;  Con- 
siderations by  the  Way;  Beauty;  Illusion." — Atlantic  Monthly.  Here  the  com- 
ma would  have  slurred  over  the  matter  too  lightly,  or  not  given  it  the  desired 
importance. 

Exercises. — Rio,  9  cents  Maracaibo,  12  cents  Java,  15  cents. 

In  sight  of  Santa  Fe  made  an  early  start  came  to  a  fine  spring  shot  an 
antelope  saw  a  herd  of  wild  horses,  etc.,  etc. 

Contributo7-s  Dr.  0.  W.  Holmes    Mrs.  Sigourney    Gilmore  Sims,  Esq. 

4.  COMMA. 

1.  The  comma  is  generally  used  where  the  sense  requires  a  short 
pause,  but  not  sufficiently  great  for  the  semicolon. 

Ex. — "  It  was  supposed  to  be  an  island,  and  received  the  name  of  Florida 
from  the  day  on  which  it  was  discovered,  and  from  the  aspect  of  the  forests, 
which  were  then  brilliant  with  a  profusion  of  blossoms,  and  gay  with  the  fresh 
verdure  of  early  spring." — Bancroft. 

Exercises, — There  upon  a  point  of  land  at  the  entrance  of  the  haven  a  lofty 
cross  was  erected  bearing  a  shred  with  the  lihes  of  France  and  an  appropriate 
inscription. — Id. 

From  the  hUls  in  his  jurisdiction  he  could  behold  across  the  clear  waters  of  a  placid 
sea  the  magnificent  vegetation  of  Porto  Rico  which  distance  rendered  still  raoi-e 
admirable  as  it  was  seen  through  the  transparent  atmosphere  of  the  tropics. — Id. 

Perhaps  almost  all  punctuation  in  regard  to  the  comma,  might  be  reduced  to 
the  four  following  heads  : — 

1.  The  serial  sense.     Two  parts,  connective, — no  comma ;  more  parts,  or 

2.  The  parenthetic  sense.     Comma.       [two  without  connective, — comma. 

3.  The  explanatory  sense.     Comma. 

4.  The  restrictive  sense.    No  comma. 

If  auy  one  will  examine  the  punctuation  of  a  well-pointed  book,  he  will  pro'-abiy 


324  PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 

ue  surprised  to  see  how  far  these  four  principles  reach.  We  might  easily  enlarff* 
on  this  view  of  the  subject,  but,  to  make  as  little  innovation  as  possible,  we  shall 
consider  the  comma, — 

First,  with  reference  to  compound  sentences. 

Secondly,  with  reference  to  simple  sentences,  and  smaller  parts. 

2.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence, when  they  are  too  closely  connected  for  the  semicolon. 

Ex. — "There  mountains  rise,  and  circling  oceans  flow." — Pope.  "How 
wretched,  were  I  mortal,  were  my  state." — Id.  "  The  beautiful  fern  lies  in  rusty 
patches  on  the  open  hill-side,  though  within  the  woods  it  is  still  fresh  and  green.' 
—  Cooper.  "Columbus,  who  discovered  America,  was  a  Genoese."  "But  oc- 
casions are  past,  the  hotir  of  their  reclioning  is  nigh  at  hand,  even  now  my  twi- 
light is  coming  on,  and  my  hopes  are  darkening  into  regrets." — Ec.  Magazirie. 

Exercises. — Since  hfe  is  short  let  us  not  be  too  solicitous  about  the  future. 
I  can  not  succeed  unless  my  friends  assist  me.  Where  the  carcass  is  there  will 
the  buzzards  be  gathered.  Either  a  sterner  course  must  be  pursued  with  him 
or  he  must  be  sent  to  some  other  school.  What  you  leave  at  your  death  let  it 
be  without  controversy  else  the  lawyers  will  be  your  heirs.  Wealth  is  of  no 
real  use  except  it  be  well  employed.  Such  was  the  terrible  explosion  of  the 
boat  that  not  a  life  was  saved.  So  violent  were  the  wind  and  rain  that  our 
wheat  was  destroyed.  I  go  but  I  return.  Whatever  we  ardently  wish  to  gain 
we  must  in  the  same  degree  be  afraid  to  lose.  Her  mouth  costs  her  nothing  for 
she  never  opens  it  but  at  others'  expense.  And  yet  after  all  it  is  man  it  is  mind 
it  is  iutelhgent  spirit  that  gives  to  this  grand  theatre  of  the  material  universe  all 
its  worth  all  its  glory.  The  farmer  who  had  never  been  in  a  city  before  and  who 
was  therefore  most  easily  duped  at  once  bid  on  the  watch.  When  public  bodies 
are  to  be  addressed  on  momentous  occasions  when  great  interests  are  at  stake 
and  strong  passions  excited  nothing  is  valuable  in  speech  farther  than  it  is  con- 
nected with  high  moral  and  intellectual  endowments.  If  it  be  in  the  spring  of 
the  year  and  the  young  grass  has  just  covered  tlie  ground  with  a  carpet  of  deli- 
cate green  and  especially  if  the  sun  is  rising  from  behind  a  distant  swell  of  the 
plain  no  scene  can  be  more  lovely  to  the  eye. 

a.  The  clauses  are  sometimes  elliptical,  but  punctuated  as  if  they 
were  not  so. 

Ex. — "  The  wind  was  the  keenest,  and  the  snow  the  deepest,  that  ever  an- 
noyed a  traveler."  "  Husbands  were  torn  from  their  wives,  and  children  fi-ora 
their  parents."  "  Say,  shall  my  bark  attendant  sail  ?"  "  A  peal  of  gunpowder 
was  hoard  on  the  water,  and  another,  and  another." 

Exercises. — If  so  the  worst  might  well  be  expected.  My  pen  diverged  to 
the  right  then  to  the  left.  And  there  was  now  no  talk  no  sport  no  rest  but  dig 
gold  wash  gold  refine  gold  load  gold.  There  was  a  greater  variety  of  colors  in 
the  embroidery  of  the  meadows  a  more  lively  green  in  the  loaves  and  grass  a 
brighter  crystal  in  the  streams  than  I  met  with  elsewhere. 

3.  A  clause  is  not  set  off  when  restrictive,  or  when  it  depends 
closely  on  something  else,  and  has  the  sense  of  a  noun,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb.     Such  are — 

a.  liestrictive  relative  clauses. 

Ex. — "  He  was  a  man  whom  nothing  could  turn  aside  from  the  path  which 
duty  pointed  out."  "I  plucked  such  plums  as  were  ripe."  "I  will  sell  you 
whatever  you  wish  to  buy." 

b.  Clauses  beginning  with  as,  because,  how,  if,  lest,  than,  that, 


PUNCTUATION. — COMMA.  326 

when^  where,  whether,  while,  why,  or  other  adverbs  of  time,  place,  or 
manner,  and  closely  depending  on  the  preceding  clause. 

Ex. — "  He  lias  acted  as  an  honorable  man  should  act."  "  He  is  not  the  less 
a  gentleman  because  he  is  poor."  "Edwin  saw  how  happy  the  old  bird  was 
with  her  nestlings."  "  Tell  me  when  it  was  that  you  saw  him."  "  There  is 
nothing  humbler  than  ambition  when  it  is  about  to  climb."  "  Do  you  know 
whether  he  is  at  home  ?" 

c.  Clauses  from  which  the  antecedent  or  the  relative  is  omitted, 
or  the  conjunction  that,  to  make  the  connection  still  closer.  Indeed, 
restrictive  clauses,  like  other  clauses,  are  frequently  elliptical. 

Ex. — "  Take  which  you  like."  "  I  saw  the  book  you  mentioned."  "  He 
thought  he  had  never  seen  any  thing  quite  so  beautiful  before."  "A  good  namo 
is  rather  to  be  chosen  than  great  riches." 

Exercises. — He  deserved  neither  the  reproaches  which  had  been  c  ist  upon 
him  while  the  event  was  doubtful  nor  the  praises  which  he  received  when  it 
bad  proved  successful.  It  is  such  men  as  he  is  that  bring  the  party  into  dis- 
repute. Avoid  a  slanderer  as  you  would  a  scorpion.  Tory  writers  have  with 
justice  remarked  that  the  language  of  these  compositions  was  as  servile  as  any 
thing  that  could  be  found  in  the  most  florid  eulogies  pronounced  by  bishops  on 
the  Stuarts.  He  informed  them  whence  we  came  whither  we  were  going  who 
we  were.  The  rain  fell  in  sheets  the  thunder  rolled  the  lightning  flashed  fierce 
and  lurid  and  the  wind  swept  in  gusts  over  the  tliieket  as  if  it  would  uproot  it 
altogether.  We  weep  over  the  dead  because  they  have  no  life  and  over  the 
living  because  they  have  no  perfection.  The  variety  of  wild  fruits  and  flower- 
ing shrubs  is  so  great  and  such  the  profusion  of  blossoms  with  which  they  are 
bowed  down   that  the  eye  is  regaled  almost  to  satiety. 

4.  A  word  or  phrase  having  the  sense  of  a  clause  that  would  be 
set  off  by  the  comma,  is  also  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Such  are  frequently  participial  or  adjective  phrases,  when  they  are  explanatory, 
or  not  restrictive. 

Ex. — "By  assisting  him,  you  will  benefit  yourself;"  i.  e.,  "  If  you  assist  him," 
etc.  "  Ores  are  natural  compounds,  being  produced  by  nature."  "  I  disUke  all 
misery,  voluntary  or  involuntary." 

Exercises. — No  child's  play  to  make  a  breach  here.  Some  Cromwell  guilt- 
less of  his  country's  blood.  It  is  moining  and  a  morning  sweet  fresh  and  beauti- 
ful. There  was  a  Grecian  liberty  bold  and  powerful  fufl  of  spirit  eloquence  and 
fire.  The  blast  seemed  to  bear  away  the  sound  of  the  voice  permitting  noth- 
ing to  be  heard  but  its  own  wild  howling  mingled  with  the  creaking  and  rat- 
tling of  the  cordage  and  the  hoarse  thunder  of  the  surges  striving  like  savage 
beasts  for  our  destruction. 

5.  Simple  sentences  do  not  usually  require  the  comma. 

Ex. — "  The  real  security  of  Christianity  is  to  be  found  in  its  benevolent  moral- 
ity." "  Perhaps  in  this  neglected  spot  is  laid  some  heart  once  pregnant  wiih 
celestial  fire." — Gray. 

Exercises. — To  be,  contents  his  natural  desire.  The  blossoms  of  spring 
and  the  fruits  of  autumn,  give  pleasure  to  the  sixd. 

6.  When  the  entire  subject  is  a  clause,  or  a  long  participial  or 
infinitive  phrase ;  when  it  has  a  clause,  a  long  adjunct  or  other  simi- 
lar phrase,  or  parts  requiring  the  comma ;  when  it  ends  with  a  verb, 
or  with  a  noun  that  might  improperly  be  read  as  the  nominative ; 


326  PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 

or  when  a  word  precedes  the  verb,  that  would  otherwise  be  of  doubt- 
ful character  or  reference, — it  seems  best  to  separate  the  subject  from 
its  predicate. 

Ex. — "  That  one  bad  example  spoils  many  good  precepts,  is  well  known.' 
"  He  that  has  much  nose,  thinks  every  one  speaks  of  it."  "  Whatever  improves 
him,  delights  him."  "  To  be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  ceasure,  is  a  real  de- 
fect in  character."  "For  me  to  furnish  him  so  large  and  expensive  an  outfit,  is 
utterly  impossible."  "His  having  been  seen  in  the  neighborhood,  was  the 
ground  of  suspicion."  "  Honor,  affluence,  and  pleasure,  seduce  the  heart." 
"  Necessity,  that  great  excuse  for  human  frailty,  breaks  through  all  law." 

There  is  a  strong  tendency  to  omit  the  comma  from  before  the  predicate  of  such 
sentences  as  the  first  seven  of  the  foregoing. 

Exercises. — He  who  falls  in  love  with  himself  will  have  no  rivals.  "What- 
ever is  is  right.  Who  does  nothing  knows  nothing.  To  maintain  a  steady 
course  amid  all  the  adversities  of  life  marks  a  great  mind.  What  the  design  of 
these  men  was  has  never  been  ascertained.  Family  feuds  violated  friendships 
and  litigations  with  neighbors  are  the  banes  of  sopiety.  Flames  above  around 
beneath  and  within  devour  the  edifice.  Divide  and  conquer  is  a  principle 
equally  just  in  science  and  in  policy. 

7.  When  the  predicate-nominative  is  a  long  clause  or  infinitive 
phrase,  and  immediately  follows  the  verb  be,  it  is  usually  set  off, 
especially  when  it  has  the  air  of  importance,  and  might  be  made 
the  subject. 

Ex. — "  One  of  the  greatest  secrets  in  composition  is,  to  know  when  to  be 
simple." — Blair.  "  Their  service  was,  to  grind  the  corn  and  carry  the  baggage.'- 
— Irving.  "But  the  question  is,  are  the  examples  correct  in  syntax?"— 
G.  Brown.  "  The  consequence  is,  that  most  animals  have  acquired  a  fear  of 
man." — Nat.  History. 

Exercises. — The  great  mystery  about  the  theft  was  that  the  door  vs^as  found 
still  locked  as  before.  All  that  a  man  gets  by  lying  is  that  he  is  not  believed 
when  he  speaks  the  truth.  The  question  that  is  to  be  discussed  to-night  by  the 
speakers  is  "  Would  the  Extension  of  our  Territory  endanger  our  Liberties  ?" 

8.  Three  or  more  serial  terms,  or  two  without  their  connective, 
are  separated  by  the  comma. 

. An  adjective  qualifyincr  others  after  it  with  a  noun,  is  not  set  oflf;  as,  "Two 
large  black  horses."    "  The  little,  round  buds  unfolded  iuto  broad  white  bloasoms." 

Ex. — "No  virtue,  no  eminence,  conferred  security." 

"  Hedges,  trees,  groves,  gardens,  orchards,  woods,  farm-houses,  huts,  halls, 
mansions,  palaces,  spires,  steeples,  towers,  and  temples,  all  go  wavering  by,  as 
the  steed  skims  along,  to  the  swelling  or  sinking  music  of  the  hounds,  now  loud 
as  a  regimental  band,  now  faint  as  an  echo." — Prof.  Wilson. 

"  Far  above  us  towered  an  iron-bound  coast,  dark,  desolate,  barren,  precipi- 
tous, against  which  the  long,  rolling  sweU  of  the  Pacific  broke  with  a  dull,  dis- 
heartening roar." —  California. 

Exercises.— A  virgin  of  eighteen  tall  and  straight  bright  blooming  and 
balmy  seems  to  our  old  ago  a  very  beautiful  and  delightful  object.— Pro/.  Wil- 
son. But  in  truth  that  amplitude  and  acuteness  of  intellect  that  vivacity  of 
fancy  that  terse  and  energetic  style  that  placid  dignity  half  courtly  half  phi- 
losophical  which  the  utmost  excitement  of  conflict  could  not  for  a  moment  de- 
range  belonged  to  Halifax  and  to  Ilahfax  alono  —Macaulay. 


PUNCTUATION. COMMA.  327 

9.  When  the  terms  of  a  series  are  joined  in  pairs,  they  should 
be  separated  in  pairs  by  the  comma. 

Ex.— "I  inquired  and  rejected,  consulted  and  deliberated,  till  the  sixty- 
second  year  made  me  ashamed  of  wishing  to  marry." — Johnson. 

Exercises. — The  poor  and  the  rich  the  weak  and  the  strong  have  all  one 
Fatlier.     Neither  time  nor  distance  neither  weal  nor  woe  can  separate  us. 

10.  Two  terms  connected  by  and,  or,  or  nor,  are  not  separated  by 
the  comma. 

Ex. — "Seed-time  and  harvest  shall  not  fail."  "Did  a  father  or  a  mother 
ever  watch  over  him  ?"  "  To  feel  no  guilt  and  to  fear  no  accusation,  is  the  pre- 
rogative of  innocence." 

Exercises. — Here  thy  temple  was,  and  is.  The  proper  authorities  were 
overlooked,  or  slightly  regarded.  Neither  the  love  of  fame,  nor  the  fear  of  shame 
can  make  him  stoop  to  an  unjust  action. 

11.  But  when  a  part  of  one  of  the  terms  might  improperly  be 
referred  to  the  other ;  when  or  adds  a  substantive  in  the  explanatory 
sense  merely  ;  when  the  terms  are  unusually  long  ;  or  when  the  latter 
term  is  strongly  emphatic  or  parenthetic, — the  two  are  separated  by 
the  comma. 

Ex. — "The  gleam  of  the  ocean,  and  vast  prairies  of  verdure,  were  before  us." 
"  The  skull,  or  cranium,  protects  the  brain."  "  That  the  king  would  retreat,  or 
that  the  people  would  lay  down  their  arms,  was  not  to  be  expected."  "  Ap- 
proach, and  behold,  while  I  lift  from  his  sepulchre  its  covering  1" 

Exercises. — 'Twas  certain  he  could  write  and  cipher  too.  He  went  and 
addressed  the  crowd.  The  English  dove  or  cushat  is  also  noted  for  its  cooing  or 
murmuring.  Othello  and  Prince  Hamlet.  "There  was  now  no  way  left  but  to 
retreat  and  load  his  gun." — Willson^s  Readers. 

12.  Repeated  words  or  expressions  are  generally  separated  by  the 
comma. 

Ex. — "  Home,  home  I  sweet,  sweet  home!"    "  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you." 
Exercises. — 1 1 1  am  the  man.     Quickly  quickly  come  away 
The  old  oaken  bucket  the  iron-bound  bucket 
The  moss-covered  bucket  which  hung  in  the  well ! 

13.  Two  terms  contrasted,  or  emphatically  distinguished,  are  gene- 
rally separated  by  the  comma. 

Ex. — "  It  is  used  so,  but  erroneously."  "  Though  poor,  luxurious ;  though 
submissive,  vain."  "He  was  impulsive,  yet  prudent."  "To  soften,  not  to 
wound,  the  heart."     "  He  read  novels,  in  stead  of  law." 

Exercises. — By  honor  and  dishonor  by  evil  report  and  good  report  as 
chastened  and  not  killed  as  sorrowful  yot  always  rejoicing  as  poor  yet  making 
many  rich, 

14.  The  comma  often  cuts  off  a  part,  to  show  its  common  de- 
pendence on  two  or  more  parts  which  are  themselves  separated  by 
the  comma. 

A  predicate  is  thus  set  oflF,  when  it  relates  to  separated  nominatives  preceding 
it;  a  restrictive  relative  clause,  when  it  relates  to  separated  antecedents ;  a  substan- 
tive, when  it  is  preceded  by  two  adjectives  or  prepositions  that  are  separated  bv 
intervening  matter;  and  parts  generally  that  relate  to  separated  words  from  wliieh 
the  connective  is  omittoa. 


328  PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 

Ex. — "The  benches,  chairs,  and  tables,  were  thrown  down."  "The  wheat, 
corn,  and  hay,  which  it  produces,  are  of  the  best  quahty."  "They  were  re- 
ceived without  distinction  in  public,  and  consequently  in  private,  payments." — 
Macaulay.  "Such  implied  covenants  as  are  annexed  to,  and  of  course  run  with, 
the  reversion." — Ghitty. 

Exercises. — The  water  was  as  bright  and  pure  and  seemed  as  precious  as 
liquid  diamonds.  But  no  such  rule  had  ever  been  or  ever  would  be  formed. 
And  all  that  beauty  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave.  The  classics  possess  a  peculiar 
charm  from  the  circumstance  that  they  have  been  the  models  I  might  almost 
say  the  masters  of  composition  and  thought  in  all  ages. 

When  a  negative  and  an  affirmative  phrase  stand  loosely  after  anotlier  part, 
both  are  set  off  by  the  comma;  if  the  former  phrase  is  in  close  combination  with 
the  verb,  only  the  latter  phrase  is  set  off  by  the  comma.  "  The  pedant  was  there- 
fore heard  by  him,  not  only  with  weariness,  but  with  malignity ;"  *'  The  pedant  wa» 
therefore  heard  not  only  with  weariness,  but  with  mahgnity." 

15.  A  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  that  is  parenthetic,  or  that  breaks 

the  connection  of  parts  closely  connected,  is  set  off  by  the  comma. 

A  part  thus  set  off  stands  most  frequently  after  a  conjunction,  an  adjective,  or 
au  adverb,  between  a  nominative  and  its  verb,  between  the  parts  of  a  verb,  or  be- 
tween a  verb  and  its  object  or  adjunct. 

Ex. — "They  set  out  early,  and,  hefore  the  dawn  of  day,  arrived  at  the  des- 
tined place."  "  Prudence,  as  well  as  courage,  is  necessary  to  overcome  ob- 
Btecles."  "Burns,  to  be  rightly  judged,  must  be  estimated  by  the  times  in 
which  he  lived."  "  Adjectives,  when  something  depends  on  them,  or  when  they 
have  the  import  of  a  dependent  clause,  should,  with  their  adjuncts,  be  set  off  by 
the  comma." 

Exercises. — Her  magnificent  hair  black  and  glossy  as  a  raven's  wing  fell 
in  thick  clusters  almost  to  her  knees.  Bodily  exercise  especially  in  the  open 
air  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  health.  No  disturbance  however  took 
place.  The  mother  to  save  her  infant  sacrificed  herself.  Halitax  mortified  by 
his  mischances  in  public  life  began  to  pine  for  his  seat  in  Nottinghamshire. 
Cover  your  flowers  for  if  they  are  unprotected  to-night  the  frost  will  kill  i,hem. 
They  knew  their  powers  not  or  as  they  learned  to  know  perverted  them 
to  evil. 

When  such  parts  stand  at  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  a  sentence  or  member, 
they  are  also  generally  set  off  by  the  comma. 

The  most  common  parenthetic  expressions  are  however,  surely,  indeed,  perhapSf 
also,  then,  too,  therefore,  likewise,  vioreover,  fwrl}y>.rmore,  consequently,  nevertheless^ 
accordingly,  unquestionably,  doubtless,  meanwhile,  lastly,  finally,  namely,  of  course, 
in  fact,  to  be  sure,  no  doubt,  in  short,  in  general,  in  reality,  in  a  loord,  in  that  case, 
in  the  mean  time,  in  the  first  place,  in  every  respect,  for  the  most  part,  without  doubt, 
beyond  question,  now  and  then,  on  the  contra/ry,  on  the  other  hand,  generally  »peahing, 
as  it  were. 

The  chief  of  those  set  off  that  usually  stand  at  the  beginning,  are  yes,  no,  well, 
why,  now,  again,  first,  secondly,  etc. 

When  a  parenthetic  part  is  short,  or  but  slightly  interrupts  the  flow  of  other 
words,  it  is  not  set  off';  as,  "  It  is  perhaps  true  ;"  "  Gladly  would  we  pour  into  thp 
bosom  the  balm  of  consolation." 

16.  But  when  the  part  is  restrictive,  it  is  not  set  off  from  that 
which  it  modifies. 

Ex. — "  He  was  one  day  in  a  field  near  a  pond  in  which  several  geese  were 
swimming,"  "  The  work  is  not  worth  the  care  and  labor  expended  upon  it." 
"  The  tree  fell  thundering  to  the  ground." 


PUNCTUATION. COMMA.  329 

Exercises. — Trees  growing  at  the  base  of  mountains  are  taller  than  those 
on  the  summit.  The  carriage  and  horses  necessary  to  conduct  you  there  will 
be  here  early  in  the  morning.  The  horse  ran  two  miles,  in  five  minutes  and 
thirty  seconds.  How  dare  you  breathe  that  air,  which  wailed  to  Heaven  the 
curses  of  those  who  fell  a  sacrifice  to  your  ambition  ?  When  statesmen  heroes 
kings  in  dust  repose.     Our  recruits  stood,  shivering  and  rubbing  their  hands. 

lY.  An  adjunct,  an  adjective  phrase,  a  participial  phrase,  an  in- 
finitive phrase,  or  a  clause,  that  stands  by  inversion  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence  or  member,  is  generally  set  off  by  the  comma. 

The  comma  is  also  placed  after  a  surname  -wiien  it  precedes  the  Christian  name  ; 
as,  "  Pope,  Alexander  ;  a  British  poet."     "  Smith,  John  H." 

Ex. — "  To  her,  many  a  soldier,  on  the  point  of  accomplishing  his  ambition, 
sacrifices  the  opportunity."  "  On  that  plain,  in  rosy  youth,  they  had  fed  their 
father's  flocks."  "  Calm,  attentive,  and  cheerful,  he  confutes  more  gracefully 
than  others  compliment."  "  Having  nothing  else  to  do,  I  went."  "  To  make 
this  clear,  I  must  tell  you  an  old  story."  "  When  spring  returns,  the  flowers 
will  bloom." 

Exercises. — Of  making  many  books  there  is  no  end.  Large  ripe  and  de- 
licious were  the  plums.  Large  ripe  delicious  were  the  plums.  Tired  of  his 
toilsome  flight  and  parched  with  heat  he  spied  at  length  a  cavern's  cool  retreat. 
To  meet  to  check  to  curb  to  stand  up  against  him  we  want  arms  of  the  same 
kind.     Whether  he  is  the  man  I  do  not  know. 

If  the  extremities  are  related,  or  if  the  adjunct  is  short  and  unemphatic,  or 
stands  next  to  the  verb,  the  comma  is  generally  omitted  ;  as,  '■'■  Such  ahorse  I  would 
not  buy.''''  "  WTiat  is  now  called  a  ministry,  he  did  not  think  oi  f wining.''''  '■'■Fur 
them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn.''''  "  At  the  comer  of  the  garden  stood 
a  tall  poplar." 

18.  A  part  is  often  set  off  by  the  comma,  that  it  may  not  affect 
something  next  to  it ;  or  to  show  its  dependence  on  something  re- 
mote, from  which  it  is  separated  by  intervening  matter ;  or  when  it 
stands  at  the  beginning  or  the  end,  and  adds  an  idea  rather  than 
modifies  an  idea. 

An  adjunct,  following  another,  or  removed  from  what  it  madifles,  is  thus  fre- 
quently set  off;  also  an  infinitive  phi-ase,  when  it  is  removed  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  what  it  modifies. 

Ex. — "  Why,  were  you  not  there  ?"  "  He  applied  for  the  situation,  with- 
out a  recommendation."  "  No  society,  of  which  moral  men  are  not  the  stamina, 
can  exist  long."  "  Whoever  fives  wickedly,  must  perish."  "  He  is  so  young 
and  inexperienced  in  the  business,  as  to  be  unqualified."  •'  He  bought  up  all 
the  mules  he  could  find,  to  sell  them  again." 

Exercises. — The  relations  of  nouns  verbs  or  modifying  words  to  other 
words.  The  ancients  separated  the  corn  firom  the  ear  by  causing  an  ox  to 
trample  on  the  sheaves.  And  why  did  you  not  go  then  ?  No  sir  never.  To 
these  bears  seldom  go.  Is  it  not  a  melancholy  thing  to  see  a  mari  clothed  in 
soft  raiment  lodged  in  a  pubhc  palace  and  endowed  with  a  rich  portion  of  other 
men's  industry  usuig  all  the  infiuence  of  his  splendid  situation  however  uncon- 
sciously to  deepen  the  ignorance  or  inflame  the  fury  of  his  fellow-creatures? 

19.  Independent  or  absolute  words,  with  what  belongs  to  them, 
are  generally  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Such  parts  are  nominatives  independent,  nominatives  absolute,  and  sometimes 
interjections  or  adverbs. 


330  PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 

Ex. — "  And  so,  Don  Gomez,  you  wUl  accompany  us."  "And  now,  sir,  what 
is  your  conclusion  ?"  "  N"octurnal  silence  reigning,  a  nightingale  began."  "  0, 
yes,  I  do."     "  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost." 

Exercises. — Friend  John  what  's  wanted?  To  you  Osman  I  consign  half 
the  city  to  you  Mustapha  the  remainder.  Thou  whining  budget  of  quack  medi- 
cines why  not  take  up  thy  boarding  at  once  in  an  apothecary's  shop  1  To  be  a 
merchant  the  art  consists  more  in  getting  paid  than  in  making  sales.  The  work 
being  done  we  returned  home.  Front  to  front  their  horns  locked  every  muscle 
strained  they  were  fighting  as  bulls  only  can  fight.  Why  what 's  the  matter  ? 
Again  we  conceive  that  natural  theology  though  not  a  demonstrative  is  yet  a  pro- 
gressive science. 

20.  When  an  appositive,  or  a  phrase  having  an  appositive,  is  af- 
fected by  a  preceding  verb,  or  when  it  rather  completes  an  idea  than 
adds  an  idea,  it  is  not  set  off;  otherwise  it  is,  especially  when  paren- 
thetic or  explanatory. 

Of  parts  not  separated,  we  have — noun,  with  noun  or  adjective;  as,  "  The  Kiver 
Hudson,"  "  Kead  the  artist,"  "Alexander  the  Great :  pronoun  with  pronotin  ;  as, 
'■'■He  himself  went :  pronoun  with  noun  j  as,  "  Ye  men  of  Altorf." 

Ex. — "They  made  him  captain."  "The  nation  regarded  him  as  the  proper 
chief  of  the  administration."  "I  myself  saw  it."  "  His  Excellency  the  Gov- 
ernor." "The  terms  reason  and  instinct."  "It  is  foolish  to  lay  out  money  in  a 
purchase  of  repentance."  "  It  is  through  inward  health  that  we  enjoy  all  out- 
ward things." 

"  It  is  related  of  Tecumseh,  the  Indian  warrior,  that  he  would  keep  a  promise 
even  toward  an  enemy."  "Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles."  "The  greatest 
Roman  orator,  Cicero,  was  distinguished  for  his  patriotism."  "As  a  race,  they 
have  withered  from  the  land."  "  This  vastly  more  significant  idea,  that  the  earth 
is  a  globe,  had  by  no  means  become  incorporated  into  the  general  intelligence  of 
the  world." 

Exercises. — The  darkness  he  called  night.  Plutarch  calls  lying,  the  vice  of 
slaves.  At  Eushnell's  the  bookseller.  At  Bushnell,  the  bookseller's.  Walter 
the  second  son  is  a  captain  in  the  navy.  The  poet  Burns.  Matthew  the  pub- 
lican.    Thou  traitor  hence  1     Moses  the  lawgiver,  and  God's  first  pen. 

21.  The  comma  is  often  inserted  where  a  finite  verb  is  omitted. 
Ex. — "  From  law  arises  security ;  from  security,  curiosity ;  and  from  curiosity, 

knowledge." 

The  comma  is  omitted,  when  the  interruption  is  but  slight,  and  when  the  ellip- 
tical clauses  depend  in  common  on  a  part  set  off  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  The  weather 
was  fine,  the  sleigh  new,  and  the  road  good." 

Exercises. — Hamilton  was  more  declamatory  imaginative  and  poetical. 
Burr  clear  pointed  concise  and  compact.  Shakespeare  wrote  his  poetry  and 
Bacon  his  philosophy  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

22.  A  quotation  closely  depending  on  a  verb  or  other  word,  is 
generally  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Ex. — "  'Knowledge  is  power,'  says  the  father  of  modem  philosophy." 
Exercises. — I  say  unto  all  Watch.     Out  spoke  the  hardy  Highland  wight 
"  I'll  go  my  chief— I'm  ready."    There  is  much  truth  in  the  proverb  "  Without 
pains  no  gains."    It  hurts  a  man's  pride  to  say  "  I  do  not  know." 

To  facilitate  the  reading  of  large  numbers  that  are  not  dates,  the  comma  is  itsed 
to  Beparate  them  into  periods;  as,  "The  population  of  the  United  States  is 
82,727^645."  It  is  generally  omitted  when  the  numbers  are  expressed  in  words  ; 
as,  "  live  million  six  thousjaud  four  hundred  and  twenty.'" 


PUNCTUATION. INTERROGATION-POINT.  331 


5.  INTERROGATION-POINT. 

1.  The  interrogation-point  is  put  at  the  end  of  every 
direct  question. 

Ex. — "  Well,  James,  what  have  you  got  there  ?" 

Exercises.— Shall  we  gather  strength  by  irresolution  and  inaction  shall 
we  acquire  the  means  of  effectual  resistance  by  lying  supinely  upon  our  backs 
until  our  enemies  have  bound  us  hand  and  foot  is  life  so  dear  or  peace  so  sweet 
as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery 

2.  Indirect  questions  are  not  distinguished  by  this  point,  nor  by 
capital  letters  ;  but,  when  quoted,  or  made  direct,  both  are  used. 

Ex. — "  He  asked  me  why  I  wept."  Indirect.  "  He  asked  me,  •  Why  do  you 
weep  ?'  "    Direct. 

Exercises. — T  do  not  know  who  he  is  whence  he  came  or  whither  he  is 
going  Do  you  know  who  he  is  whence  he  came  or  whither  he  is  going 
Let  us  consider  first  of  what  use  it  will  be  and  secondly  what  it  wUl  cost 
Let  us  consider  first  of  what  use  will  it  be  and  secondly  what  will  it  cost 
Is  the  law  constitutional  is  the  question  for  discussion  to-night  Whether  the  law 
is  constitutional  is  the  question  for  discussion  I  said  to  Defamation  "  who  will 
hear  thee  "  "  When  Diogenes  was  asked  what  wine  he  liked  best  ?  he  answered, 
*  That  which  is  drunk  at  the  expense  of  others.'  " — Johnson's  Rambler. 

3.  Interrogative  sentences  may  sometimes  be  closely  related  in 
sense,  or  be  elliptical,  or  be  declarative  in  form. 

Ex. — "Is  this  reason?  Is  it  law?  Is  it  humanity?" — Wirt.  "Does  he 
hunt  ?  Does  he  shoot  ?  Is  he  in  debt  ?  Is  he  temperate  ?  Does  he  attend  to 
his  parish  ?" — Sydney  Smith.  "  They  say  if  the  bUl  is  rejected.  Government 
must  stop.  What  must  stop  ?  The  laws  ?  The  judicial  tribunals  ?  The  legis- 
lative bodies  ?  The  institutions  of  the  country  ?  No,  no,  sir !  all  these  will 
remain,  and  go  on." — Gritienden.    Surely,  sir,  I  have  seen  you  before? 

4.  The  interrogation-point  may  supersede  not  only  the  period, 
bnt  it  may  be  used  also  within  the  sentence,  so  as  to  supersede  the 
comma,  the  semicolon,  or  the  colon. 

Ex. — "  Is  any  among  you  afflicted  ?  let  him  pray;"  "If  any  among  you  is 
afflicted,  let  him  pray."  "  What  have  you  to  say,  Charles?  for  I  am  waiting;" 
"Say  what  you  have  to  say,  Charles;  for  I  am  waiting."  "Who  will  not 
cherish  the  following  sentiment  of  Clay  ?  '  I  would  rather  be  right  than  Presi- 
dent ;'  "  "  Let  us  ever  cherish  the  following  sentiment  of  Clay :  '  I  would  rather 
be  right  than  President."  But  when  the  quoted  sentence  is  needed  to  make  the 
question  complete,  the  interrogation-point  is  put  at  the  end ;  as,  "  Then,  why 
did  you  not  say  at  once,  'It  is  a  cold  day'?  " — John  Wilson. 

Exercises. — "  Will  you  go  "  said  he  "  or  will  you  stay  " 
What  say  you  will  you  yield  and  this  avoid 
Or  guilty  in  defence  be  thus  destroyed  — ShaJcespcan 

5.  When  two  or  more  questions  admit  of  different  or  distinc- 
answers,  and  have  connectives ;  or  are  used  elliptical ly,  with  such 
dependence  on  something  in  common  that  they  can  not  stand  alone, 
— they  may  all  be  gathered  into  one  sentence,  with  the  interrogation- 
point  after  each. 


332  PUNCTUATION. EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

Ex.^ — "  Is  my  name  Talbot  ?  and  am  I  your  son  ?  and  shall  I  fly  ?" — Shake- 
speare. "  Is  there  no  honor  in  generosity?  nor  in  preferring  the  lessons  of  oca- 
science  to  the  impulses  of  passion  ?  nor  in  maintaining  the  supremacy  of  moral 
principle,  and  paying  reverence  to  Christian  truth?" — G.  Broion.  "What  are 
the  interjections  of  joy  ? — of  praise  ? — of  sorrow  ? — of  grief  ?" — Id. 

Exercises. — To  purchase  heaven  has  gold  the  power 

Can  gold  remove  the  mortal  hour  — Johnson. 

As  the  gentleman  has  thus  settled  the  definition  of  aristocracy  I  trust  that 
no  man  will  think  it  a  term  of  reproach  for  who  among  us  would  not  be  wise 
who  would  not  be  virtuous  who  would  not  be  above  want  — Livingston. 
"Was  it  not  a  delusion  had  it  been  really  accomplished  and  could  it  be  done 
again  — Andrew  Fulton. 

6.  When  a  question  is  not  complete  before  the  end  is  reached  ; 
when  the  whole  sentence  is  rather  one  question  than  several ;  or 
when  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  or  the  colon,  can  as  well  be  used 
within  the  sentence, — the  interrogation-point  should  be  put  only  at 
the  end. 

Ex. — ""Will  you  go,  or  stay?"  ""Which  is  more, — three-fourths  or  four- 
fifths  ?"  "  Doth  thy  heart  heave  with  emotions  of  thankfulness  to  God,  for 
making  the  earth  so  fair,  so  redolent  of  beauty  in  its  garniture  of  flowers ;  and 
for  having  scattered  these  silent  teachers  up  and  down  the  world  as  orators  of 
perfume,  and  links  of  beauty,  to  bind  our  souls  to  nature  in  all  times  and  where- 
soever we  may  be?" — Parker.  Here  some  punctuators  would  have  put  an 
interrogation-point  after  flowers  ;  but  the  semicolon  is  better. 

Exercises. — Did  he  travel  for  health  or  for  pleasure  Who  is  worse  he 
who  cheats  or  he  who  steals  Where  are  your  gibes  now  your  gambols  your 
songs  your  flashes  of  merriment  that  were  wont  to  set  the  table  in  roar 

v.  The  interrogation-point  is  sometimes  inserted  with  curves,  to 
doubt  the  truth  of  something  without  formally  saying  so. 

Ex. — "  If  the  immortal  Bacon — the  wisest,  greatest,  meanest  (?),  of  mankind— 
disgraced  the  judgment-seat,"  etc. — Edinburgh  Review. 

6.  EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

1.  The  excSaiiiatioii-poiiit    is    put    after    parts    expressing 
emotion, — such  as  surprise,  joy,  grief,  anger,  etc. — very  much  as  the 
interrogation-point  is  put  after  parts  denoting  inquiry. 
Ek. — "  Lo  !  Newton,  priest  of  nature,  shines  afar, 

Scans  the  wide  world,  and  numbers  every  star!" — Campbell. 
"  Fair  star  of  evening  I  splendor  of  the  west ! 
Star  of  my  country  I  on  the  horizon's  brink 
Thou  hangest." 
"  Now  press  them  1  now,  ye  Trojans,  steed-renowned. 
Rush  on !  break  through  the  Grecian  rampart,  hurl 
At  once  devouring  flames  into  the  fleet!" — Gowper^s  Homer. 
"  Such  a  chirping  and  twittering !     Such  diving  down  from  the  nest,  and 
flying  up  again!     Such  a  wheeling  round  in  circles^  and  talking  to  the  young 
ones  all  the  while  1" — Sydney  Smith.     "O  thou  disconsolate  widow !  robbed,  so 
cruelly  robbed,  and  in  so  short  a  time,  botli  of  a  husband  and  a  son!  what  must 
be  the  plenitude  of  thy  suffering  I"— Z>r.  Nott :  Funeral  of  Hamilton. 

Hence  wo  see  that  exclamatory  sentences  may  be  either  declarative,  interroga- 
tive, or  imperative  in  form  ;  and  they  are  also  often  elliptical  or  fratjinentarv. 


PUNCTUATION. ^EXCLAMATION-POINT.  333 

Exercises. — "  What  was  the  cause  of  our  wasting  forty  millions  of  money 
and  sixty  thousand  lives  The  American  war  What  was  it  that  produced  the 
French  rescript  and  a  French  war  The  Americau  war  For  what  are  we 
about  to  incur  an  additional  debt  of  twelve  or  fourteen  millions  This  cursed 
cruel  diabolical  American  war  " — Fox,. 

"  Gentlemen  what  does  this  mean  Chops  and  tomato  sauce  Tours  Pick- 
wick Chops  Grracious  heavens  And  tomato  sauce  Is  the  happiness  of  a  sensi- 
tive and  confiding  female  to  be  trifled  away  by  such  shallow  artifices  as  these  " 

2.  It  is  used  after  unusually  solemn  and  earnest  invocations  or 
addresses. 

Ex. — "  0  blessed  Health  I  thou  art  above  all  gold  and  treasure !"  "  Spare  me, 
merciful  God !"  "  Conscript  Fathers  I  I  do  not  rise  to  spend  the  night  in  words." 

Exercises. — Thy  doom  is  sealed  presumptuous  slave  Truth  friendship  my 
country  sacred  objects  sentiments  dear  to  my  heart  accept  my  last  sacrifice 

3.  The  point  is  generally  used  after  an  interjection. 

Ex. — "  Yoho !  yoho  I  through  lanes,  groves,  and  villages." — Dickens. 

But  that  the  point  must  be  placed  after  every  interjection  except  6>,  eh,  and  Tiey, 
is  not  true.  0,  immediately  preceding  the  name  of  something  addressed,  has  usu- 
ally no  point.  When  interjections  are  spoken  of  as  mere  words,  they  should  not 
be  followed  by  the  exclamation-point ;  as,  Ah,  0,  alas,  ho. 

4,  Weoften  find  fra2;ments  quoted  and  made  exclamatory  or  inteijec- 
tional ;  and  sometimes  parts  are  quoted  with  their  exclamatory  sense. 

Ex. — "'Tried  and  convicted  traitor!'  Who  says  this?"  "  '  Traitor!'  I  go  ; 
but  I  return,"  "  We  should  realize,  by  act,  the  words  '  awake  !  arise  !'  in  as 
quick  and  immediate  succession  as  they  were  uttered  by  the  poet." 

Exercises. — "  *  To  the  guillotine  to  the  guillotine  '  exclaimed  the  female 
part  of  the  rabble  "  "  Then  the  first  sound  went  forth  '  They  ctome  they 
come  '"    '"  Tramp  tramp '  was  suddenly  heard  on  the  stairs    Who  could  it  be  " 

5,  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  the  exclamation-point 
should  supersede  other  points ;  but  the  writer,  knowing  his  own  meaning, 
can  best  decide  for  himself.  He  should  first  consider  whether  the  sen- 
tence is  sufficiently  emotional  for  the  point ;  and  then,  in  what  part,  or  in 
how  much  of  the  sentence,  the  emotion  is  chiefly  comprised,  putting  the 
point  at  the  end  of  such  part. 

As  to  the  length  of  the  sentence,  or  as  to  how  ranch  shall  be  put  into  one  ex- 
clamation, the  same  principles  will  apply  here  that  apply  to  interrogative  sen- 
tences. 

Ex.—"  Well,  to  be  sure,  how  much  I  have  fagged  through  !— the  only  won- 
der is,  that  one  head  can  contain  it  all!"  "And  then  there  are  my  Italian 
songs!  which  every  body  allows  I  sing  with  taste." 

"  '  Strange,'  murmurs  the  dying  invalid,  looking  out  from  his  window  upon 
the  world—'  strange !  how  the  beauty  and  mystery  of  all  nature  are  heightened 
by  the  near  prospect  of  that  coming  darkness  which  will  sweep  them  all  away!" 

Exercises. — How  ugly  a  person  appears  upon  whoso  reputation  some  awk- 
ward aspersion  hangs  and  how  suddenly  his  countenance  clears  up  with  his 
character  0  home  magical  all  powerful  home  how  strong  must  have  been  thy 
influence  when  thy  faintest  memory  could  cause  these  bronzed  heroes  of  a  thou- 
sand fights  to  weep  like  tearful  women 

To  justify  the  use  of  this  point  after  each  of  the  several  parts  of  a  sentence, 
they  must  be  deeply  emotional ;  as,  "  What !  attribute  the  sacred  sanction  ot  God 
and  nature  to  the  massacres  of  the  Indian  scalpinsr-knife  !  to  the  cannibal  savage, 
torturiutr,  murdering,  devouriner,  drinking  the  blood  of  his  man-.:lea  victims  . 


334  PUNCTUATION. EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

6.  When  an  interjection  or  other  emotional  word  is  to  be  expressive 
chiefly  in  connection  with  other  words,  it  is  better  to  defer  the  exclama- 
tion-point as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  end.  When  deep  emotion  belongs 
chiefly  to  the  whole  of  a  phrase  or  sentence,  it  is  generally  better  expressed 
by  one  point  at  the  end,  than  by  the  hitching  and  interrupting  caused  by 
a  multitude  of  points  within. 

Ex. — "  Charge,  Chester,  charge  1  Ou,  Stanley,  on  I"  "  How  meek,  how 
patient,  the  mild  creature  lies!"  "But,  0  thou  best  of  parents!  wipe  thy 
tears,"  "Ah  me!"  not,  "Ah!  me."  "Ha,  ha,  ha!"  "  Alas,  my  noble  boy  I 
that  thou  shouldst  die  !" 

"Oh!  you  went  with  him,  did  you?" — Goodrich. 
"0,  what  a  sweet  place  graadraother's  orchard  is!" — E.  Sargent. 
Exercises. — Under  such  circumstances  I  never  would  lay  down  my  arms 
never  never  never      Macbeth   Macbeth   Macbeth   beware   Macduff     Frieuds 
Romans   countrymen   lend  me  your  ears       William    William   (can't  you  hear 
me  )  bring  the  gun      Alas  sir  how  fell  you  beside  your  five  wits 
"  Rejoice !  rejoice !  the  summer  months  are  coming ; 
Rejoice  1  rejoice  !  the  birds  begin  to  sing!" 
"  Gentle  river,  gentle  river!  tell  us  whither  do  you  glide. 
Through  the  green  and  sunny  meadows,  with  your  sweetly  murmuring  tide  ?" 
In  the  former  couplet,  one  exclamatory  word  requires  as  great  a  pause  as  the 
other,  and  the  parts  express  much  joy;  in  the  latter,  the  second  phrase  requires 
a  greater  pause  than  the  first,  and  tue  parts  express  less  emotion  than  those  of 
the  otiier. 

1.  The  exclamation-point  is  preferred  to  the  interrocjation-point, 
when  the  idea  of  emotion  predominates  over  that  of  inquiry. 

Ex. — "  Where  is  the  man,  where  is  the  philosopher,  who  could  so  live,  suffer, 
and  die,  without  weakness  and  without  ostentation !" — Rousseau. 

This  is  not  addressed  to  any  particular  person  for  an  answer ;  the  author  ex- 
pects no  answer,  and  means  to  give  none  himself.  The  sentence  expresses  his 
feelings  rather  than  his  doubts,  or  the  interrogative  arrangement  is  bat  a  stronger 
mode  of  stating  a  declarative  exclamation  ;  hence  marked  !,  and  not  '?. 

There  is  sometimes  nice  choosing  between  these  two  points,  and  it  is  then  a 
matter  of  little  consequence  which  is  preferred. 

"  Canst  thou  command  the  Lightnings,  that  they  may  go,  and  say  unto  thee,  '  Here  Tre  are  ?'  *' 
"  Canst  thou  command  the  Lightnings,  that  they  may  go,  and  say  unto  thee,  '  Here  we  are  I' " 

Perhaps  the  latter  punctuation  is  preferable,  for  the  form  of  the  sentence  is 
but  a  stronger  mode  of  saying.  You  can  not  do  this. 

To  make  a  declarative  sentence  a  little  more  emphatic  than  usual,  it  is  some- 
times stated  in  the  interrogative  or  exclamatory  form,  without  the  interrogation 
or  exclamation  point.      See  p.  317. 

8.  To  express  great  wonder,  irony,  or  contempt,  two  or  more  ex- 
clamation-points are  sometimes  used  together. 

Ex. — "  Selling  off  below  cost!  I  great  sacrifices  II!"  "Arrest  a  gentleman  I !  I 
take  a  warrant  out  against  a  gentleman  !  I — ^you  villain  I  What  do  you  mean  ?" 
"Reduce  Providence  to  an  alternaLivel  1 1" — Sydney  Smith. 

9.  The  exclamation-point  is  also  used  sometimes  like  the  inter- 
rogation-point, to  denote  sneeringly  the  unbelief  of  the  speaker. 

Ex. — "The  measures  whicli  ho  introduced  to  Congress,  and  wdiich  ought  in 
have  been  carried  by  overwhelming  majorities  ( ?  ),  proved  him  to  have  been  to 
•very  sense  a  great  statesman  ( ! )." 


PUNCTUATION. DASH.  335 


1.  DASH. 


The  dash  seems  to  be  used,  in  many  modern  books,  wherever  the  author,  from 
ignorance  of  the  laws  of  punctuation,  does  not  precisely  know  what  point  should 
be  used.  We  sometimes  find  pages  on  which  it  is  used  so  often  that  a  lively 
fancy  might  easily  conceive  them  to  have  been  printed  from  a  gridiron.  But  it 
seems  that  even  long  ago  the  world  was  very  dcbshy ;  for  an  old  poet  says, — 

"AH  modem  trash  is 
Set  forth  with  numerous  breaks  and  dashes." 

The  dash  is  generally  a  sort  of  graphic  or  emotional  mark,  indicating  such  a 
suspense  in  the  sense  as  will  have  a  peculiar  or  important  eil'ect  on  the  memory, 
curiosity,  or  expectation  of  the  reader.  It  has  sometimes  the  force  of  a  semi- 
exclamation-point  used  within  the  sentence.  The  Germans  call  it  the  thought- 
stroJce,  that  is,  the  mark  which  aims  to  set  the  reader  to  thinking. 

Dr.  Mandeviile  says,  it  denotes  unusual  structure  or  significance  ;  we  should 
rather  say,  it  denotes  transition  or  emotion. 

Though  much  abused,  the  dash  is  nevertheless  an  excellent  point  when  put 
in  its  right  places,  all  of  which  we  shall  endeavor  to  show. 


1.  The  da!«h  is  often  preferred  to  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  or 
the  colon,  to  express  unusual  emphasis  or  suppressed  emotion.  When 
thus  used,  it  appeals  to  the  reader's  reflection. 

Ex. —  "  They  conquered — but  Bozzaris  fell, 

Bleeding  at  every  vein." — Halleck. 
"  And  the  best  plan  to  silence  and  admonish  them. 
Would  be  10  give  a  'party' — and  astonish  them." — Id. 

It  is  thus  often  used  to  show  witty  transition. 

Exercises.  —  This  world  'tis  true  was  made  for  Caesar  but  for  Titus  too. 

a.  In  this  sense  also,  it  sometimes  supersedes,  within  the  sentence, 
the  interrogation-point  or  the  exclamation-point,  or  is  simply  a  little 
weaker. 

Ex. — "Have  I  not  seen  you  leaden-eyed — clay-pated — almost  dumb  with 
pain  hammering  at  your  temples — degraded  by  nausea  tugging  at  your  stomach 
— }0ur  hand  shaking  hke  a  leaf— your  mouth  like  the  mouth  of  an  oven— and 
vour  tongue,  I'm  sure  of  it,  like  burnt  shoe-leather  ?" — D.  Jerrold.  That  is  to 
say,  Deny  it,  if  you  can  I  The  dash  here  appeals  with  great  fbrco  to  the  con- 
science of  his  drunken  companion. 

2.  In  its  emotional  sense,  it  is  also  sometimes  inserted  between 
parts  too  closely  related  for  any  grammatical  point. 

Ex. — "Yet  this — is  Rome,  that  sat  on  her  seven  hills,  and  from  her  throne  q\ 
beauty  ruled  the  world  1 " — Mitford. 

"  Is  it  like  ? — like  whom  ? — 
The  things  that  mount  the  rostrum  with  a  skip, 
And  then — skip  down  again." — Gowper. 
Exercises. — This  bond  doth  give  thee  here  no  jot  oCUood-ShaJcespeare. 
And  life's  piano  now  for  me  hath  lost  its  sweetest  tones  sir 
Since  my  MatUda  Brown  became  some  fellow's  Mrs.  Jouos  sir 

3.  In  its  emotional  sense,  it  is  sometimes  added  to  other  point* 


336  PUNCTUATION. DASH. 

Sometimes  it  is  added  merely  to  lengtlien  the  pause  a  little,  or  to 
mark  transition. 

Ex. —  "  He  saw — whatever  thou  hast  seen ; 

Enjoyed, — but  his  delights  are  fled." — Montgomery. 
"  It  thunders; — but  it  thunders  to  preserve." — Young. 
Such  double  points  as  the  foregoing  are  now  often  avoided,  by  using  simply 
the  dash  or  the  next  greater  common  point.     The  comma  with  the  dash  is  more 
emphatic  than  the  semicolon ;  the  semicolon  with  the  dash  is  more  emphatic  than 
the  colon;  but  the  semicolon  and  the  colon  are  neater  points. 

"He  said;  then  full  before  their  sight  produced  the  beast,  and  lo  ! — 'twas 
white." — Merrick.     "  I  pause  for  a  reply. — None  ?     Then  none  have  I  offended. — 
I  have  done  no  more  to  Caesar,  than  you  should  do  to  Brutus." — Shakespeare. 
"And  enterprises  of  great  pith  and  moment. 
With  this  regard  their  currents  turn  awry, 
And  lose  the  name  of  action. — Soft,  you  now  1 
The  fair  Ophelia. — Nymph,  in  thy  orisons 
Be  all  my  sins  remembered." — Shak. :  Hamlet     (Transition.) 
The  dash  here  avoids  the  commencement  of  a  new  paragraph. 

"  Who  next  ? — 0,  my  little  friend,  you  are  just  let  loose  from  school,  and 
come  hither  to  scrub  your  blooming  face,  and  drown  the  memory  of  certain  taps 
of  the  ferule,  and  of  other  schoolboy  troubles,  in  a  draught  from  the  Town  Pump." 
— Hawthorne. 

"  The  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  are  usually  three  ;  namely,  the  subject, 
or  nominative, — the  attribute,  or  finite  verb, — and  the  case  put  after,  or  the  ob- 
ject governed  by  the  verb:  as,  '  Crimes  deserve  punishment.^  " — Goold  Brown. 

"  The  possessive  case  may  denote  the  relation  of  persons ;  as,  *  William's 
cousin; — or  the  relation  of  the  doer  to  the  thing  done;  as,  'Solomon's  Temple ;' 
—or  the  relation  of  a  whole  to  its  parts ;  as,  '  a  horse's  head.'  " — Greene, 

Here  Mr.  Brown  needed  a  point  greater  than  the  comma  and  less  than  the  semi- 
colon, and  so  he  added  the  dash  to  the  comma.  Mr.  Greene  needed  a  point  greater 
than  the  semicolon,  and  so  he  added  the  dash  to  it ;  he  might  better  have  used  the 
colon.    There  is  a  tendency  to  avoid  double  points. 

4.  When  elliptical  or  heterogeneous  parts  are  brought  emotionally 
into  one  sentence,  they  are  generally  separated  by  the  dash. 

Ex. — "  Came  home  solus — very  high  wind — lightning — moonshine — solitary 
stragglers  muffled  in  cloaks — white  houses — clouds  hurrying  over  the  sky — 
altogether  very  poetical." — Byron. 

Exercises. — But  you  are  hungry  want  a  breakfast  turn  into  a  restaurant 
call  for  ham  eggs  and  coflee  then  y^mr  bill  six  dollars     California. 

6.  It  is  used  to  show  suspense  or  delay. 

Ex. — "  The  pulse  fluttered — stopped — went  on — throbbed — stopped  again — 
moved — stopped.— Shall  I  go  on  ? — No." — Sterne. 

Exercises. — One  pressed  his  antagonist  back  back  back  tUl  there  was  but 
another  step  of  plank  behind  him  between  him  and  nothing. 

6.  It  is  sometimes  imitative,  and  has,  besides,  the  emotional  sense 
which  was  first  mentioned. 

Ex. — "Pop!  There — the  cork  's  drawn.  Gurgle — gurgle — gurgle — good— 
good — good — No  I  it  is  in  vain  ;  there  is  no  type — there  are  no  printed  sounds 
(allow  me  the  concetto) — to  describe  the  melody,  the  cadence,  of  the  out- pouring 
bottle."— i).  Jerro^d 


PUNCTUATION. DASH.  337 

Exercises.— The  clock  went  tick  tick  tick  tick  and  I  went  nid-nod  nod- 
ding nidding  tni  -suddenly  the  door-beU  rang  and  startled  me  from  my 
oi'ovvsmess  ^ 

1.  It  is  used  to  show  hesitation  or  faltering. 
■^^•— "  I— I  myself— was  in  \oyq— with— PmsQih-LkV— Hawthorne. 
Exercises. — He  was  very  sorry  for  it  was  extremely  concerned  it  should 
happen  so  but  as  it  was  necessary  a 

8.  It  is  put  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  left  unfinished,  whether  from 
interruption,  faltering,  or  any  other  cause. 

Ex.—  "  '  She  was  ' 

*  A  great  fool.'  said  a  trooper." 
"  *  Here  lies  the  great' — False  marble  I  where  ?" — Young. 
"  It  was  to  inquire  by  what  title  General — but,  catching  himself— Mr.  Wash- 
ington chose  to  be  addressed." — Irving. 

Exercises. — These  are  ah  no  these  were  the  gazetteers. 

"■Gil  Bias.     Your  Grace's  sermons  never  fail  to  he  admired  but 

*^ Archbishop.    It  lacked  the  strength  the  Do  you  not  agree  with  me  sir" 

9.  It  is  also  used  before  and  after  each  interruption,  and  before 
echoes,  that  is,  expressions  emphatically  resumed. 

Ex. — "I  take — eh!  ohl — as  much  exercise — eh! — as  I  can,  Madam  Gout. 
You  know  my  sedentary  state." — FranJclin.  "  All  seemed  very  well ;  but — for 
there  was  one  of  those  dreadful  '  buts'  in  the  case — but  he  had  a  very  small 
amount  of  money  to  provide  a  home."  "No,  sir;  I  always  thought  Robertson 
would  be  crushed  by  his  own  weight — would  be  buried  uuder  his  own  orna- 
ments."— Qttarterly  lieview. 

10.  In  its  transition  sense,  it  is  used  to  enclose  a  parenthesis,  es- 
pecially when  this  is  rather  long,  and  has  other  points  within  it. 

Ex. — "  Their  female  companion — faded,  though  still  young — possessed,  never- 
theless, a  face  whose  expression  frequeutly  drew  my  gaze." — Bulwer. 

Exercises. — Tom  Moore  -wrote  politics  at  times  pointed  bitter  rankling 
politics  but  he  was  really  no  politician  at  heart  Setting  aside  a  nire  virtue 
in  this  cUmeher  aristocratic  antecedents  she  setup  as  a  baker  for  the  public 

11.  If  the  sentence  is  broken  by  the  parenthesis  where  it  required 
some  ordinary  point,  this  point  is  phiced  before  each  parenthetic 
dash  ;  otherwise,  simply  the  dashes  are  used. 

Ex. — "  If  the  immortal  Bacon — '  the  wisest,  greatest,  meanest  ( ? ),  of  man- 
kind'— disgraced  the  judgment-seat,  and  stained  his  own  great  name, — not,  we 
believe,  to  prevent,  but  to  expedite,  justice, — was  not  bribery,  which  stained 
the  ermine  on  infinitely  meaner  shoulders,  also  the  vice  of  his  time  ? — Edinburgh 
Jieview. 

"  I  was  an  auditor— auditreas,  I  mean— of  one  of  his  leGtmes.^—Bdwtliorne. 
Here  the  latter  dash  has  superseded  the  comma,  "Though  1  have  civen  eight 
pounds  a  year,— would  you  believe  it  ?— I  have  never  once  succeeded."— t/er/'oW. 
''  But  the  curate — alas,  poor  man  1 — he  has  been  to  college,  and  is  a  gentleman." 
—Id.    The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are  not  superseded. 

12.  It  shows  the  transition  of  structure  when  a  sentence  is  drop- 
ped in  one  form,  and  resumed  in  another. 

Rx. — "  The  noble  indignation  with  which  Emmett  repelled  the  charge  of 


338  PUNCTUATION. — DASH, 

treason  aprainst  hia  countrj,  the  eloquent  vindication  of  his  name,  and  hia  pa- 
thetic appeals  to  posterity, — all  these  entered  deeply  into  every  generous  breast." 
— Irving. 

At  these  culminating  points  of  sentences,  the  colon  was  formerly  often  used. 

Exercises. — The  crisp  snow  and  the  woolly  clouds  the  delightful  rustle  of 
the  summer  forest  and  the  waving  of  the  autumn  corn  the  glory  of  the  sunset 
and  the  wonder  of  the  rainbow  the  world  would  have  wanted  these  had  not 
the  winds  been  taught  to  do  their  Master's  bidding      Dickens. 

13.  It  is  used  where  that  is  or  namely  can  be  conceived  to  be 
omitted. 

Ex. — "  The  story  is  not  deficient  in  that  which  all  stories  should  have,  to  be 
perfectly  delightful, — a  fortunate  conclusion." 

Exercises. — On  this  was  he  willing  to  stake  all  he  had  character  and  life 
It  had  literally  nothing  to  do  beyond  what  I  have  said  to  flow  to  bubble  to  look 
limpid  to  murmur  amid  flowers  and  sweet  perfumes 

In  this  sense  it  is  also  often  used  alone  ;  as,  "  It  is  just  what  might  have  been 
expected  from  its  aixthor — a  very  juvenile  performance." — Edinburgh  Jieview. 
When  the  purts  are  long,  the  semicolon  is  often  preferred. 

14.  It  is  placed,  with  the  comma,  after  a  loose  series  of  nomina- 
tive terms  leading  to  an  important  predicate. 

Ex. — "  The  same  vigor  of  thought ;  the  same  form  of  expression  ;  the  short 
sentences  ;  the  calm,  bold,  and  collected  manner ;  the  air  of  solemn  dignity ;  the 
deep,  sepulchral,  unimpassioned  voice, — have  all  been  developed,  not  changed, 
even  to  the  intenser  bitterness  of  his  irony." —  Wilde :   Webster. 

15.  On  the  same  principle  it  is  sometimes  placed  before  a  term 
relating  to  a  series  of  others,  to  show  its  common  dependence  on  all 
of  them. 

Ex. —     "All  business  ceased,  the  towns  in  silence  lay, 
Men  brooded  deep  in  vengeance  and  dismay. 
And  naught  was  heard  save  woman's  wail  of  woe, — 
As  spread  the  tidings  from  the  Alamo." 
Without  the  dash,  it  might  seem  that  the  last  line  relates  only  to  the  line  pre- 
cediug  it. 

a.  But  when  the  parts  of  a  series  are  very  long  or  very  numer- 
ous,  it  may  be  best  to  use  the  dash  after  each  of  them,  to  show  their 
common  dependence  on  something  remote. 
Ex. — '*  When  lawyers  take  what  they  would  give. 

And  doctors  give  what  they  would  take, — 
When  city  lathers  eat  to  live. 

Save  when  they  fast  for  conscience'  sake," —  etc. — Holmes. 
This  stanza,  with  seven  others  like  it,  depends  on  a  concluding  one. 

16.  The  dash  is  sometimes  used  at  the  beginning  of  renewed  dis- 
course viewed  as  the  continuance  of  previous  discourse  loft  un- 
finished, or  after  a  digression. 

Ex. "  But  to  return  to  my  mother,"  etc.— >S^ee  Sterne's  Works;  Holmes's 

Autocrat.     It  here  has  its  transition  sense. 

In  imitation  of  a  French  custom,  we  now  often  see  it  at  the  left  of  newspaper 
paragniphs,  to  show  that  they  are  new.  When  thus  used,  it  has  both  its  eino- 
tional  and  transition  neuse  or  is  simply  a  little  more  modest  than  the  hand  used 
in  show-bills,  etc. 


PUNCTUATION. DASH.  $89 

17.  In  dialogue  not  having  the  speaker's  name,  nor  distinguished 
by  breaks,  it  is  generally  used  to  show  the  transition  from  one 
speaker's  saying  to  that  of  another. 

Ex. — "You  have  been  my  two-fisted  valet  these  thirty  years. — Hera! — 
Hem  ?    What  do  you  mean  by  hem  ?" — Coleman. 

Exercises. — "in  combustibihty  it  agrees  with  eannel  coal  It  does.  Have 
you  examined  its  fracture    I  have." 

So,  when  but  one  person  fictitiously  represents  two ;  as,  "  When  arrived  ? — 
this  evening.  How  long  do  I  stay? — uncertain.  What  are  my  plans? — ^let  ns 
discuss  them."    (Questions  of  a  friend  anticipated  and  answered.) 

18.  Hence  it  is  also  placed  between  sentences  which  are  not  the 
consecutive  thoughts  of  their  author  on  the  same  subject. 

Ex. — "  'The  wound,'  said  Lord  Bacon,  'is  not  dangerous,  unless  we  poison 
it  with  our  remedies. — The  wrongs  of  the  Puritans  may  hardly  be  dissembled  or 
excused. — On  subjects  of  religion  he  was  always  for  moderate  counsels.'  "^ 
Bancroft.  "Both  subjects  sometimes  come  before  the  verb ;  as,  "  I  know  not 
who  he  is." — "  Who  did  you  say  it  was  ?" — "  I  know  not  how  to  tell  thee  who  I 
am." — Goold  Brown. 

When  examples  are  each  enclosed  by  quotation-marks,  I  do  not  think  they  need 
the  dash. 

19.  In  books,  it  is  placed  after  each  period  that  separates  the  head- 
ings of  a  series ;  in  newspapers,  it  is  thus  nsed  without  any  other  point. 

Ex. — Heavy  Rain. — Camp. — Buffalo  Hunt. — Osage  Indians.— /mn^. 
*^  Arrival  of  the  Great  Eastern — ITews  from  Europe — State  of  the  Money  Market,'''  etc. 

20.  It  is  placed  after  side-heads;  and  also  before  the  authority  or 
credit,  when  in  the  same  line  with  the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

Ex. — "The  Abuse  of  the  Imagination.— He  who  can  not  command  his 
thoughts,  must  not  hope  to  control  his  actions.  All  mental  superiority  originates 
in  habits  of  thinking." — Jane  Taylor. 

"  Howard— iSitWce.     WAtoi^— Quarterly  Bevieio."—E.  Sargent. 

In  these  senses  it  is  not  always  needed,  and  is  often  omitted. 

21.  It  is  used  after  a  line,  or  a  part  of  a  line,  when  connected  with 
something  begun  or  resumed  in  the  line  below  : — 

Ex. — "  My  Dear  Boy, — 

"  Do  you  choose  your  friend,  like  an  orange,  by  its  golden 
outside,  and  the  fpwer  of  yielding  much  when  well  squeezed,"  otc— Punch. 

In  this  sense  it  is  generally  not  needed,  and  is  often  omitted. 

22.  It  is  often  used  to  separate  the  number  of  a  lesson,  chapter, 
or  section,  from  the  title  placed  after  it. 

Ex— "Lesson  LXII.— The  Power  of  Music." 

In  this  sense  it  is  not  always  needed,  and  is  sometimes  omitted. 

It  is  used  to  show  the  omission  of  letters  or  figures. 

Ex.-"  See  pages  250—258;"  i.  e.,  all  the  pages,  beginning  with  250  to  258 
inclusive.     "  See  pp.  250-58."     See  p.  352. 

In  arithmetic,  it  should  rather  not  be  used,  especially  when  it  might  be  mis- 
taken  for  the  minus  sign.  .  «      .  ^  ♦!,    ♦v...^ 

It  is  sometimes  used  when  none  of  the  four  chief  pomts,  or  none  ot  tne  inree 
minor  points,  is  altogetlier  appropriate ;  or  so  as  to  supply  wlxatever  pomt  tUe 
punctuation  system  may  happen  to  need. 


340  PUNCTUATION. CURVES. 

8.  CURVES. 

1.  The  curves  are  used  to  enclose  something  hastily  thrown 
in,  which  is  merely  incidental  or  explanatory,  and  may  be  omitted 
without  injuring  the  grammatical  construction.  What  is  enclosed, 
is  called  a  parenthesis.  A  parenthesis  is  like  a  by-path  to  the 
main  road. 

Ex. — "  Mr.  Plausible  (to  borrow  a  name  from  John  Bunyan)  wishes  the  Hon. 
Mr.  Spendthrift  to  represent  the  county  of •." — Eclectic  Magazine. 

"  Next  day  the  landlord  inquires  (and  all  landlords  are  inquisitive),  and  after 
inquiry  talks  (and  all  landlords  are  tallcative),  concerning  the  private  business  of 
his  new  guest." — lb. 

"  I  send  you,  my  dear  child,  (and  you  will  not  doubt)  very  sincerely,  ihe 
wishes  of  the  season." — Chesterfield. 

The  first  and  the  last  example  tend  to  show  that  curves  are  sometimes  indis- 
pensable, for  setting  olf  what  might  otherwise  be  viewed  as  a  part  of  the  sentence 
itself. 

2.  Letters  or  figures,  used  as  marks  of  reference  or  for  number- 
ing, are  often  enclosed  by  curves,  especially  when  their  meaning 
might  otherwise  be  uncertain  or  ambiguous. 

Ex. — "(1.)  By  using  different  words;  (2.)  By  difference  of  termination,"  etc. 
— S.  S.  Greene,  "(a.)  What  it  does;  {b.)  What  it  is." — Id.  Curves  thns  used, 
are  often  unnecessary ;  and  whenever  they  are  so,  they  should  be  omitted. 

3.  The  curves  are  now  often  preferred  to  brackets,  for  enclosing 
explanations  or  incidental  remarks,  whether  given  by  the  author  or 
the  copyist,  especially  when  they  stand  within  the  paragraph.  See 
under  Brackets. 

Ex  — "  Orthoepy,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek  orthon  (upright)  and  epo 
(I  speak),  signifies  the  right  utterance  of  words." — Sargent.  "  The  Comma  (,)  de- 
notes," etc. — Id.  "  But  it  is  objected  by  tlie  Senator  from  Tennessee  (Mr.  Grundy), 
that  the  construction  which  I  contend  for,  &c.,  &c.     (Applause.)" — Cong.  Globe. 

"  *  If  they  persist  in  reading  this  book  to  a  conclusion,  {impossible !)  they 
will  no  doubt  have  to  struggle  with  feehngs  of  awkwardness ;  (hal  ha!  ha!) 
they  will  look  round  for  poetry,  (ha!  ha!  hal)  and  will  be  induced  to  inquire 
by  what  species  of  courtesy  these  attempts  have  been  permitted  to  assume  that 
tide.'    Hal  hal  ha!" — E.  A.  Poe,  laughing  as  he  reads. 


The  dash  is  now  often  used,  and  also  the  comma,  in  stead  of  the 
curves. 

The  dash  should  be  preferred  when  the  parenthesis  coalesces  rather 
closely,  in  sense  and  grammatical  construction,  with  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  or  when  it  is  rather  emotional  or  emphatic. 

The  curves  should  be  preferred  when  the  parenthesis  coalesces  little  or 
least,  in  sense  and  grammatical  construction,  with  the  rest  of  the  seu- 
j^nce;  or  when  the  parenthesis  is  to  be  read  in  a  very  perceptible 
undertone. 

^he  aomma  should  be  preferred  when  it  will  serve  as  well  as  either  of 
fhe  other  m^rka. 

Ex.—"  I  ha(|  given  a  third  part  of  ray  wealth — four  cents — for  it."  (Emo- 
pioaal  or  emphatic:  it  dravss  the  attention  strongly  to  how  great  the  sura  was.) 


PUNCTUATION. CURVES.  341 

"I  had  given  a  third  part  of  my  wealth  (four  cents)  for  it."  This  takes  the 
least  notice  of  the  sum ;  it  may  even  imply  that  the  person  addressed,  already 
knew  how  much  that  third  was. 

"  I  had  given  a  tlnrd  part  of  my  wealth,  four  cents,  for  it."  This  is  inter- 
mediate, in. sense,  between  the  other  two. 

4.  When  a  parentliesis  occurs  within  another,  curves  are  usually 
applied  to  one,  and  dashes  to  the  other ;  the  less  coalescent  one 
taking  the  curves.     But  this  rule  is  not  always  observed. 

Ex' — "  The  little  party  were  still  lingering  in  the  deep  recess  of  the  large 
bay-window — which  (in  itself  of  dimensions  that  would  have  swallowed  up  a 
moderate-sized  London  parlor)  held  the  great  round  tea-table  with  all  appliances 
and  means  to  boot — to  behold  the  beautiful  summer  moon  shed  on  the  sward  so 
silvery  a  lustre,  and  the  trees  cast  so  quiet  a  shadow." — Harper's  Magazine. 

"  The  branches  of  knowledge  taught  in  our  schools, — reading — in  which  I 
include  the  spelling  of  our  language — a  firm,  sightly,  legible  hand-writing,  and 
the  elemental  rules  of  arithmetic, — are  of  greater  value  than  all  the  rest  which 
is  taught  at  school." — E.  Everett. 


5.  The  parts  embosoming  a  parenthesis,  are  punctuated  as  if 
they  had  it  not. 

Ex. — *'  The  good  man  (and  good  men  not  only  think  good  thoughts,  but  do 
good  deeds)  hves  more  in  a  year,  than  a  selfish,  covetous  man  in  a  century." 
{The  good  man  lives,  etc.) 

"  It  behooves  me  to  say  that  these  three  (who,  by  the  way,  are  all  dead)  pos- 
sessed great  general  abihty,  and  had  respectively  received  a  good  education." — 
Harper^s  Magazine. 

6.  If  a  point  is  required  at  the  end  of  the  first  part,  it  may  be 
placed  before  each  curve,  if  the  structure  will  allow  it.  Though 
many  punctuators  prefer  to  insert  the  point  but  once,  and  imme- 
diately after  the  latter  curve. 

Ex. — "  This  book  is  written,  or  supposed  to  be  written,  (for  we  would  speak 
timidly  of  the  mysteries  of  superior  beings,)  by  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Hannah 
More." — Sydney  Smith. 

"  My  sisters  wont  to  the  best  schools  in  town;  (and  here  let  me  acknowl- 
edge, that,  knowing  our  former  position  and  present  difficulties,  everywhere 
friends  turned  up  for  us;)  they  had  all  they  wanted,  as  far  as  books  and  masters 
were  concerned." — Eclectic  Reviev). 

"Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the  proud  man  himself), 
is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of  action  among  men." — John  Wilson. 

7.  But  when  the  parenthesis  is  too  closely  related  to  the  former 
part  to  be  cut  off  from  it  by  the  point,  then  the  point  must  be 
placed  after  the  latter  curve. 

Ex. — "  Gladiator  (Lat.  gladius,  a  sword) ;  a  sword-player,  a  prize-fighter." — 
Sargent  "  The  Nominative  independent  or  absolute  (absolutus,  released^  free, 
from  grammatical  structure). " — S.  S.  Greene. 

8.  The  parenthesis  is  punctuated,  within  itself,  as  usual ;  and  if 
it  requires,  at  its  end,  an  interrogation  or  exclamation  point,  or  a 
different  point  from  that  of  the  part  before  it,  each  part  takes  its 
proper  point  and  before  the  curve. 


342  PUNCTUATION. BRACKETS. 

Bx, —        "  For  the  bee  never  idles,  but  labors  all  day, 

And  thinks  (wise  little  bee  !)  work  better  than  play." 
"  I  gave  (and  who  wouM  not  have  given  ?)  my  last  dollar  to  the  miserable 


"  The  Frenchman,  first  in  literary  fame, 
(Mention  him,  if  you  please.     Voltaire  ? — The  same.) 
With  spirit,  genius,  eloquence,  supplied, 

Lived  long,  wrote  much,  laughed  heartily,  and  died." — Coioper. 
"My  mother  grew  worse,  and  France  also   (Moscow — 1813  1);  we  were  in 
extreme  penury." — Eclectic  Review.      The  punctuation  of  the  foregoing  sentence 
is  questionable,  yet  I  believe  it  brings  out  the  sense  to  the  best  advantage. 

9.  When  a  dash,  relating  to  either  the  first  broken  part  or  the 
parenthesis,  is  placed  after  the  first  broken  part,  it  is  also  generally 
placed  before  the  second  broken  part. 

Ex. — "  I  received  an  office  as  junior  clerk  in — (one  name  will  do  as  well  as 
another) — in  Her  Majesty's  Waste-Paper  OflQce." — British  Rtview.  (Significant 
or  emphatic  dash,  relating  to  the  parts  separated,  and  showing  reiteration.) 

10.  When  an  entire  and  distinct  sentence  or  phrase  is  ma(]e 
parenthetic,  the  period  or  other  point  should  be  placed  before,  not 
after,  the  latter  curve.     See  the  last  example. 

9.  BRACI^TS. 

1.  The  brackets  are  properly  used  to  enclose  what  one  person 
puts  into  the  writing  of  another. 

Ex. — "  Yours  [the  British]  is  a  nation  of  unbounded  resources, — a  nation 
from  whose  empire  (and  it  has  been  your  proudest  boast)  the  sun  never  dis- 
appears."    (Explanation.) 

"  Do  you  know  if  [whether]  he  is  at  home  ?"     (Correction.) 
Abbotsford,  May  12th,  [1820].     (Omission.) 

"  Lessox  LV. — Llewellyn  and  his  Dog. 

"  [A  true  story,  showing  the  lamentable  effects  of  hasty  wrath.] 
"  The  spearman  heard  the  bugle  sound,  and  cheerily  smiled  the  morn, 
And  many  a  brach  and  many  a  hound  attend  Llewellyn's  horn,"  etc.. 
"  [Here  Mr.  Clay  was  interrupted  by  the  Senator  from  Michigan.]" 

2.  The  writer  himself  may  sometimes  use  the  brackets  to  enclose 
some  explanation,  direction,  or  observation ;  especially  when  it 
stands  apart  by  itself,  and  has  so  little  connection  with  the  text 
that  it  can  hardly  be  considered  a  part  of  it. 

Ex. — "Rosina.  [Between  the  scenes.]  To  work,  my  hearts  of  oak,  to  work  I 
Here  the  sun  is  half  an  hour  high,  and  not  a  stroke  struck  yet. 

[Enters  singing,  followed  by  reapers.]" 
But  thus  in  the  latest  books : — 
"i>o»  Luis.     Kopose  awhile,  I  will  return  with  speed. 

[Exit  hastily.'] 
"Oliver.    (Advancing.)   How  fell  Don  Luis  to  such  poverty  ?" — Boker. 
SometimcB  but  one  bracket  is  used,  as  in  Wliite's  Shakespeare. 
"  Now,  like  to  whelps,  we  crying  run  away. 

[A  iliort  alarum.^^ 
"  Dismission,  (— mish'-un,)  n.  [Lat.  dlsmissio.Y — N.  Webster. 


PUNCTUATION. — HYPHEN.  343 

3.  The  writer  himself  may  sometimes  use  brackets  to  show  what 
is  digression  or  interpolation. 

Ex. — See  Dr.  Holmes's  "  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table." 
"  I  never  liked  him,  never,  in  ray  days  !" 
["  0,  yes  I  you  did,"  said  Ellen  with  a  sob.] 
"  There  always  was  a  something  in  his  ways — " 
[''So  sweet — so  kind,"  said  Ellen  with  a  throb.] — Hood. 
Brackets  are  so  uncouth  that  there  is  some  tendency  to  use  the  curves  in  their 
stead,  when  the  interpolated  part,  though  within  the  paragraph,  is  not  liable  to  be 
misuudersrood,  if  distinguished  by  the  curves. 

Ex.—"  Patrick  Henry  wound  up  by  one  of  those  daring  flights  of  declamation 
for  which  he  was  so  remarkable,  and  startled  the  House  by  a  warning  flash  from 
history  :  'Caesar  had  his  Brutus  ;  Charles,  his  Cromwell  ;  and  George  the  Third—' 
('Treason!  treason  I'  resounded  from  the  neiirhborhood  of  the  Chair) — 'may 
profit  by  their  example,'  added  Henry.  'Sir,  if  this  be  treason  (bowing  to  the 
speaker),  make  the  most  of  it.'  " — Irving. 

10.  HYPHEN. 

1.  The  hyphen  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  of  a  word  so 
long  that  a  part  must  be  put  into  the  next  line.  Words  are  divided 
into  syllables  according  to  their  pronunciation  and  composition, 
the  latter  yielding  to  the  former  whenever  they  plainly  disagree. 
See  pp.  77-8. 

It  is  sometimes  used  to  show  the  syllables  of  a  word ;  as,  Dis-grace-ful,  co-operate. 

2.  The  hyphen  joins  the  parts  of  compound  words  that  do  not 
coalesce  sufficiently  to  be  united  without  it. 

Ex. — "  Look  at  pretty,  ten-year-old,  rosy -cheeked,  golden  haired  Mary,  gazing 
with  all  the  blue  brightness  of  her  eyes,  at  that  large  dew-drop." — Pro/.  Wilsoji. 


The  compounding  of  words  depends  on  the  sense  ;  the  con- 
solidation on  the  pronunciation  ;  and  both  depend  somewhat  on 
custom. 

3.  A  compound  word  should  denote  one  idea  rather  than  two  or 
more,  or  it  should  have  a  meaning  different  from  that  of  the  separated 
words,  or  it  should  imply  a  change  in  the  part  of  speech,  or  it  should 
be  known  as  the  familiar  term  for  a  certain  object  or  attribute. 

Ex. — "Horse-fly,  orang-outang,  gooseberry,  to-night,  wild-rose,  slippery-elm, 
iipple-orchard,  sewing-machine,  humming-bird;  a  black-bearded  man ;  a  s'uie-qua- 
nnn  condition ;  the  end-all  and  be-all ;  a  settiug-forth  of." 

There  is  generally  the  greatest  difficulty  in  deciding,  when  the  former  word  has 
somewhat  the  nature  of  an  adjective.  If  it  denotes  the  substance,  or  is  merely  de- 
horiptive,  and  not  a  part  of  the  name,  there  is  no  compounding  ;  as,  a  gold  cup,  moun- 
fitln.  billows,  saltwater  fisfi,  village  bells :  but,  if  otherwise,  there  is  ;  as,  school-room, 
uialering-place.  When  the  former  word  may  suggest  either  the  idea  of  composing, 
or  else  that  of  belonging  to,  relating  to,  or  connected  with,  the  latter  sense  is  usualfy 
distinguished  from  tlie  former  by  compounding  ;  as,  a  glass  house,  a  glass-house. 
Tn  general,  when  the  terms  have  passed  into  the  nomenclature  of  some  particular 
art,  science,  or  occupation,  the  elements  are  compounded.  There  are  some  excep- 
tions to  this  ei;  tire  paragraph. 


344  PUNCTUATION. HYPHEN. 

4.  A  part  common  to  two  or  more  consecutive  compounds, 
should  either  be  left  separate,  o)-,  to  avoid  ambiguity,  be  made  a 
part  of  each. 

Ex. — "  Eiding  and  dancing  schools ;"  or,  "  Eiding-schools  and  dancing-schools;" 
not,  "  Eiding  and  dancing-schools,"  uor,  "  Eiding-  and  dancing-schools." 

An  epithet  already  compound,  is  not  usually  joiaed  to  its  noun  ;  as,  "  high- 
water  mark  ;"  "  whalebone  rody  "When  there  is  a  bunch  of  compounds,  it  is  often 
better  to  separate  or  to  consolidate  some  of  them ;  as,  "  master^  quarter-master, 
quartermaster-general ;''''  '■'■  creeh,  mill-creelc,  mill-creek  coal-Jield,  mill-creek  cannelr 
coal,  mill-creek  cannelcoal-Jield.'''' 

'   Pronunciation  relates  to  the  letters,  syllables,  and  accents. 

5.  If  the  parts  coalesce  with  the  smooth  flow  of  syllables  making 

one  word  ;  if  there   is   no  liability  of  improperly  joining  letters  of 

one  to  the  other ;  if  there  is  one  chief  accent,  the  other  being    no 

stronger  than  an   ordinary  secondary  accent ;  if  the  parts  are   not 

too  long ;  and  if  the  parts  are  not  too  new  in  combination  to  be 

easily  understood, — they  are  consolidated. 

Ex. — "  Everlasting,  graveyard,  gentleman,  highwayman,  forthcoming,  bare- 
faced." But,  "  Soul-stirring,  ant-hill,  peep-hole,  sand-eel,  remainder-man,  knit- 
ting-needle, spelling-book,  ciieese-press."  "  Home'sickness,"  accent  yielded  by  the 
longer  word  to  the  shorter  ;  "  council-room,"  accent  not  yielded,  nor  next  to  the 
hyphen-place. 


a.  A  phrase  made  an  epithet,  is  always  compounded. 
Ex. — "  A  two-foot  ruler  ;"  "  The  tree-and-chud-shadowed  river." 
But  when  the  former  word  can  not  be  conceived  otherwise  than  as  an  adverb 
modifying  the  next  word,  the  two  are  not  compounded  ;  as,  '■'■Newly  varnished  fur- 
niture;" ^'' Love  ill  requited.^^ 

h.  Idiomatic  phrases  are  usually  not  compounded. 
Ex. — ' '  By  and  by ;  to  and  fro ;  tit  for  tat ;  out  and  out." 

c.  A  foreign  phrase  that  is  made  an  epithet,  or  that  has  so  lost  the  mean- 
ing of  its  parts  as  to  be  Anglicized,  is  hyphened  ;  but  if  its  words  remain 
separately  significant  as  they  stand,  it  is  left  uncompounded,  and  often 
expressed  in  Italics. 

Ex.—"  Piano-forte,  camera-obscura,  billet-doux,  ex-post-facto  laws  ;  habeas  cor- 
pus ;  scire  facias  ;  nux  vomica." 

d.  A  phrase,  having  a  possessive,  and  used  as  a  proper  name,  remains 
uncompounded ;  if  it  is  a  somewhat  unusual  common  name,  with  a  change 
of  the  original  meaning,  the  apostrophe  and  hyphen  are  used  ;  and  if  it  is 
a  very  common  term,  the  parts  are  consolidated,  and  the  hyphen  is  omitted. 

Ex.—"  Cook's  Inlet,  Barrow's  Strait ;  Eupert's-drops,  lamb's-wool ;  ratsbane, 
beeswax."    Capital  letters  are  sometimes  a  sort  of  substitute  for  the  hyphen. 

c.  Cardinal  numerals  are  hyphened  from  twenty  to  hundred.  With 
ordinals  used  as  nouns,  they  are  usually  compounded,  though  sometimes 
needlessly. 

Ex.—"  One  thousand  two  hundred  and  eighty-seven."  "  Two-thirds,  three- 
fourths,  five  twenty-sixths." 

/.  Certain  words  consisting  of  rhymes,  or  of  syllables  combined  for  the 
sake  of  the  sound,  are  generally  consolidated  if  the  parts  are  two  mono- 


PUNCTUATION. HYPHEN.  346 

?!yllables  ;  and  sometimes  if  they  are  dissyllables.     They  are  hyphened  in 
other  cases. 

Ex. — "Picnic,  hodgepodge,  powwow,  zigzag,  chitchat,  huggemiugger,  helter- 
skelter,  wishy-washy,  hurdy-gurdy,  ninuy-hamiuer." 

g.  A  prefix  is  generally  consolidated  with  the  rest  of  the  word, 
Ex. — "(>!>erflow,  undergr&dia&tQ^  «e»iicircle." 

h.  Prefixes,  or  similar  parts,  are  not  consolidated  with  the  rest  of  the 
word,  if  they  stand  before  a  capital  letter ;  if  they  are  followed  by  a  greater 
pause  than  ordinary  syllables  thus  situated,  or  by  a  pause  showing  the 
separate  significance  of  the  pails  ;  or  if  they  should  be  kept  apart  to  pre- 
serve the  sense  or  pronunciation. 

Ex. — "Anti-Benton,  pre-Adamite,  Anglo-Saxon,  Neo-Platonic,  concavo-convex, 
proto-sulphuret,  vice-admiral,  electro-magnetism,  reformation,  re-formation,  rec'- 
reation,  re-creation,  re-revise,  co-operate  (also  cooperate),  semi-cylindrical,  co-tan- 
gent, nou-essential." 

i.  When  a  writer  makes  a  new  compound,  or  chooses  one  that  he  sup- 
poses not  well  known  to  his  reader,  he  should  generally  use  the  hyphen. 
JBut,  by  long  and  general  usage,  compound  words  tend  to  lose  the  hyphen. 

Ex. — "Some  of  us  have  killed  ''brown-backs''  axidi  '■yellow-legs'  [birds],  on  the 
marshes."  "  Since  railroads  and  steamboats  have  driven  all  the  romance  out  of 
travel." — Irving. 

In  doubtful  cases,  especially  when  the  parts  are  monosyllables,  it  is  better  to 
consolidate  them ;  for  tue  analogy  of  some  eminent  foreign  languages — tlie  Ger- 
man and  the  Greek — favors  this  mode  of  writing  words. 

Familiar  Explanations. — Many -colored  birds  have  many  colors  each ; 
mari/y  cokyred  birds  are  numerous,  though  they  may  all  be  of  one  color.  A  light 
armed  soldier  is  a  light  soldier  with  arms ;  a  light-armed  soldier  has  light  arms. 
A  live  oak  is  simply  a  living  oak ;  a  live-oak  is  a  speeios  of  evergreen  oak.  A 
sugar  tree  is  made  of  sugar ;  a  sugar-tree  is  a  maple  that  yields  sugar.  So,  a 
ylass  house  is  made  of  glass  ;  a  glass-hov^e  is  a  house  in  which  glass  is  manufac- 
tured. A  dancing  master  is  a  master  that  dances;  a  dancing-master  teacher 
dancing.  A  boarding-house  has  boarders ;  a  boarding  fiouse  may  seem  to  board 
Lady's  slipper  is  a  shoe ;  lady's-slipper  is  a  plant.  A  dog's-ear  is  the  comer  of  a 
ieaf  turned  over ;  a  dog's  ear  is  tiie  ear  of  a  dog.  A  bull's-eye  is  a  small  round 
window;  a  hull's  eye  is  the  eye  of  a  bull.  A  crow  is  a  black  bird,  but  not  a 
blackbird.  Six  and  seventeen=23  ;  sixteen  and  seventeen='d3.  Twenty-five  cent 
pieces=25  cents;  twenty  five-cent  pieces=$I.OO.  A  horse  racing  is  a  horse  in 
the  act  of  running ;  a  horse-racing  is  a  running  of  horses.  '''■Time  tutored  age  and 
love  exalted  youth,"  is  very  difierent  from,  ''■Tcme-tutortd  age  and  love-exalted 
jouth."  So  is  touch  me  not  from  touch-me-not.  "The  deep-tar.gled  wild- 
wood;"  "■Battle-hymns  and  dirges."  Without  the  hyphen,  deep  would  quality 
wiidzvood,  not  tangled ;  and  Battle  would  also  refer  to  dirges.  Hence  when  two 
adjectives  stand  before  a  noun,  each  of  which  might  qualify  it,  they  must  be  joinef 
to  show  that  one  is  used  adverbially  to  modify  the  other. 

Exercises. — There  are  four  footed  animals.  Watch  makers  and  glass  cut- 
tors.  He  is  a  free  mason.  Texas  abounds  in  humming  birds  and  mocking  birds. 
A  red  headed  high  tempered  woman.  The  corn  fields  and  the  walnut  trees.  A 
paper  mill  is  not  made  of  paper,  nor  a  tin  peddler  of  tin.  A  white  oak,  a  black 
oak.  and  a  go  cart.  Five  gallon  kegs  and  three  foot  measures.  The  twenty- 
third  and  fourtli  trees  are  the  best  in  the  row.  The  twenty-third  and  twenty- 
fourth  trees,  &c.  Steamships  and  boats  are  propelled  by  steam.  The  what  and 
liow  much.     "  Crops  have  been  much  injured  by  the  cut  worm." — Newspaper 


346  PUNCTUATION. —  QUOTATION-MARKS. 

11.  QUOTATION-MARKS. 

1.  Quotatioii-iiiai'ks  enclose  what  is  to  be  presented  as  tlie 
identical  word  or  words  of  some  other  person  or  writin  g. 

Ex. — "  I  rise  for  information,"  said  a  member  of  Congress.  "  I  am  very  glad 
to  hear  it,"  cried  another  sitting  by ;   "for  no  one  needs  it  more." 

2.  A  quotation  within  another,  is  enclosed  by  single  quotation- 
marks. 

If  I  wished  to  represent  the  entire  foregoing  paragraph  as  something  quoted 
by  me,  I  sliould  write  it  thus : — 

"  '  I  rise  for  information,'  said  a  member  of  Congress.  '  I  am  very  glad  to  hear 
it,'  cried  another  sitting  by  ;   '  for  no  one  needs  it  more.'  " 

3.  When  the  double  and  the  single  marks  have  both  been  used, 
they  are,  if  needed,  repeated  in  the  same  order. 

4.  When  many  quotations  occur  within  one  another,  it  is  better 
to  leave  the  inner  ones  undistinguished  by  quotation-marks;  espe- 
cially if  capitals  can  be  used  to  show  the  beginning  of  each. 

Ex. — "  Jesus  answered.the  Jews,  '  Is  it  not  written  in  your  law, — I  said, 
Te  are  gods?'" — New  Teslameni:  John  x.  34. 

Mr.  Wilson  very  properly  prefers  the  foregoing  mode  of  pointing  to  the  follow- 
ing :  "  Jesus  answered  the  Jews,  '  Is  it  not  written  in  your  law, — "  I  said,  '  Ye  are 
gods'  "  V  " 

5.  When  an  extract  of  two  or  more  paragraphs  is  quoted,  the  in- 
troductory quotation-marks  are  placed  before  each  paragraph,  and 
the  closing  ones  only  after  the  last. 

Ex. — Some  of  Jefferson's  rules  of  life  are  these  : — 
"  Never  spend  your  money  before  you  have  it. 
"  Never  trouble  others  for  what  you  can  do  yourself. 
"  Never  put  off  till  to-morrow  what  you  can  do  to-day." 

6.  When  something  already  interrogative  or  exclamatory  is  quoted, 
the  closing  quotation-marks  follow  the  point ;  but  when  something  is 
quoted,  and  made  interrogative  or  exclamatory  afterwards,  the  closing 
marks  precede  the  point.  The  four  common  points,  to  avoid  un- 
couth blank  spaces,  are  always  placed  before  the  closing  quotation- 
marks. 

Ex. — He  asked  me,  "  Why  do  you  weep  ?"  Why  did  you  not  say  at  once, 
*'  I  can  not  go"  ? 

"  '  Banished  from  Rome'  I      What 's  banished  but  set  free 
From  daily  contact  of  the  things  I  loathe." 
Cauijou  spell  "  phthisic"  ? 

"  Went  home  yesterday"  ?     Then  I  must  write  to  him." 
Or :  "  '  Went  home  yesterday'  ?     Then  I  must  write  to  him." 
A  quotation  is  punctuated  within  itself  as  if  it  stood  alone. 

7.  Quotation-marks  are  often  used  in  speaking  of  words,  phrases, 
or  sentences.  Some  writers,  when  quoting  words  from  popular 
usage,  insert  but  single  quotation-marks.  Italics  and  quotation-marks 
are  often  used  arbitrarily,  as  means  of  distinguishing  words  or  phrases. 


PUNCTUATION. UNDERSCORE.'  847 

Ex. — The  phrase  "  not  at  all,"  is  an  idiom. 

What  is  '  secret',  may  be  accidentally  or  intentionally  so :  '  hidden'  and  *  con- 
cealed' imply  something  intentionally  kept  secret.  We  speak  of  '  a  hidden  plot,' 
'  a  conceakd  intention'.  '  Covert'  is  something  not  avowed.  It  may  be  intended 
to  be  seen ;  '  a  covert  allusion'  is  meant  to  be  understood,  but  is  not  openly  ex- 
pressed.—  Whaiely. 

8.  Quotation-marks  are  not  needed,  when  we  present  in  our  own 
language  the  saying  of  another. 

Ex. — Randolph  said,  "  Pay  as  you  go."  Randolph  said,  that  we  should  pay 
as  we  go. 

Quotation-marks  may  be  used  even  when  the  authority  itself  is  annexed.  They 
may  also  be  used  when  an  author  furnishes  from  himself  such  illustrations  as 
might  be  thus  distinguished  if  taken  from  other  writers,  Quotatiou-marks  may 
be  omitted,  when  deemed  unnecessary  or  too  cumbersome.  In  the, Bible  they  are 
generally  omitted,  when  the  quotation  stands  within  the  sentence,  and  begins  with 
a  capital. 

12.  UNDERSCORE. 

1.  The  underscore  is  used  in  writing,  being  drawn  under 
what  should  be  printed  in  Italics  or  in  capitals. 

Italics  are  slanting  letters;  and  they  were  so  called  because  the  Italians  not 
only  invented  them,  but  immediately  gave  to  the  world  an  edition  of  v'lrgil  printed 
wholly  iu  these  letters. 

2.  Italics  denote,  in  general,  emphasis  or  distinction.  They 
direct  particular  attention  to  some  word  or  words,  or  show  in  what 
part  the  point  or  pith  of  the  sentence  chiefly  lies. 

Ex. — "We  must Jlght;  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  micst  fight."  "Here  /reign  king, 
and,  to  enrage  thee  more,  thy  king  and  lord." 

"  An  hour  or  two,  and  forth  she  goes, 
The  school  she  brightly  seeks; 
She  carries  in  her  hand  a  rose, 

And  two  upon  her  cheeks^ — Southern  Literary  Messenger. 
^^  OH  course  a  race-course  isn't  coarse,  a,  fine  is  far  from^lrie." — Hood. 

3.  They  are  generally  used  to  distinguish  foreign  words  intro- 
duced among  English. 

Ex. — "  He  was  secretary  pro  tempore.''^  '■ 

"  My  foohsh  heart  beats  pit-a-pat — sic  omnia  vindt  amor.^^ 

4.  They  are  generally  used  to  distinguish  what  is  spoken  of  as  a 
mere  letter,  word,  phrase,  or  sentence. 

Ex. —  "J.  does  want  ye  to  make  it  aye, — 

There 's  but  one  p  in  peas." — Hood. 

"  Which  may  be  applied  to  phrases  or  clauses,  but  that  only  to  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns."    "  That  he  should  be  more  careful is  a  substantive  clause,  in  tlio 

nominative  case,"  etc. 

5.  The  names  of  boats,  ships,  newspapers,  and  magazines,  or  other 
periodical  literature,  are  usually  printed  in  Italics ;  the  names  of  books 
seldom  need  this  mode  of  distinction,  but  they  are  sometimes  quoted. 

Ex. — "The  Neptune  sailed  yesterday."  "An  article  in  the  New- Tork  Mer- 
cury ^  "  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire."  Thomson's  "Seasons." 

Credits  and  authorities  anuexed  to  quoted  paragraphs,  are  also  generally  j  rinted 
in  Italics  or  in  small  capitals. 


'848  PUNCTUATION. 0BS3RVATI0NS. 

In  the  common  English  Bible,  Italics  show  what  words  were  not  in  the  original 
When  a  sentence  or  paragraph  is  to  be  expressed  in  Italics,  Roman  or 
capital  letters  must  be  used  to  distinguish  any  part  of  it. 

Ex. — "  Time  is  a  measured  portion  of  indefinite  darationy — Olmsted. 

To  denote  still  greater  emphasis  or  distinction  than  Italics  would  express, 
capital  letters  should  be  used.  Italics  show  what  is  emphatic ;  small  capitals, 
what  is  more  emphatic ;  and  capitals,  what  is  very  emphatic.  Draw  the  line  under 
once,  to  denote /to/ics ;  twice,  to  denote  small  capitals;  three  times,  to  de- 


note CAPITALS;  and  four  times,  to  denote  ITALIG  CAPITALS,  or  orna- 
mental letters.  ~ 


OB'SERVATIONS. 

There  is  probably  not,  in  the  compass  of  human  knowledge,  a  more  chaotic 
subject  thin  punctuation ;  and  we  might  present  many  critical  and  useful  re- 
marks upon  it,  but  our  want  of  space  will  allow  only  a  few. 

Punctuation  is  influenced — 1.  By  the  sense;  2.  By  the  delivery,  or  the  pause 
required ;  3.  By  the  points  elsewhere  required ;  4.  By  the  connectives  or  sup- 
pressed words;  5.'  By  the  length  of  the  parts  to  be  punctuated;  6.  By  the  posi- 
tion of  the  parts.  1.  "  The  troops  landed  and  killed  a  hundred  Indians,"  im- 
plies that  they  brought  the  Indians  with  them  ;  "  The  troops  landed,  and  killed 
a  hundred  Indians,"  expresses  the  true  meaning.  "Alphonso  Karr,  a  celebrated 
writer,  distinguished  for  his  taste  and  knowledge  in  botany,"  implies  taste  in 
botany;  "Alphonso  Karr,  a  celebrated  writer,  distinguished  for  his  taste,  and 
knowledge  in  botany,"  refers  only  the  knowledge  to  botany.  "  I  said  he  is  dis- 
honest, it  is  true  ;  and  I  am  sorrj'^  for  it,"  differs  widely  from,  "I  said  he  is  dis- 
honest ;  it  is  true,  and  I  am  sorry  for  it."  "  I  can  not  violate  my  oath  to  support 
the  Constitution,"  implies  that  the  oath  relates  to  the  Constitution ;  "  I  can  not 
violate  my  oath,  to  support  the  Constitution,"  imphes  some  other  oath.  "  Why 
did  you  not  come  to  us  in  the  beginning  of  the  night  ?"  inquires  about  the 
cause ;  "  Why,  did  you  not  come  to  us  in  the  beginning  of  the  night  ?"  inquires 
about  the  fact.  "  The  groat  principles  of  government  which  are  easily  under- 
stood, are  known  everywhere,"  refers  to  some  of  the  great  principles  only ;  "  The 
great  principles  of  government,  which  are  easily  understood,  are  known  every- 
where," refers  to  all  of  them.  "  0  Shame  I  where  is  thy  blush  ?"  is  an  address 
to  shame.  "0,  shame  1  where  is  thy  blush?"  is  an  address  to  something  else. 
a,  "  Yes,  you  shall."  "Yes;  and  for  you  too."  "Yes:  he  has  done  all  this, 
and  yet  you  are  not  satisfied."  3.  "  Since  our  journey  began,  it  had  rained  in 
torrents ;  and  now  both  horse  and  rider  refused  to  go  a  step  farther :  the  beast, 
because  he  sank  up  to  his  knees  in  mud  ;  and  the  rider,  because  he  was  wet  to 
the  bone."  4.  "  Study  to  promote  the  happiness  of  mankind  :  it  is  the  true  end 
of  your  creation;"  "Study  to  promote  the  happiness  of  mankind;  for  it  is  the 
true  end  of  your  creation."  "  Let  it  appear  so;  make  your  vaunting  true  ;"  "  Let 
it  appear  so,  and  make  your  vaunting  true."  "  The  cool,  sequestered  paths  of 
life ;"  "  The  cool  and  sequestered  paths  of  life."  5.  "  There  was  fire  above  and 
below  the  house ;"  "  Good  men  are  not  always  found  in  union  with,  but  some- 
times in  opposition  to,  tlio  views  and  conduct  of  one  another."  "Teach,  urge, 
threaten,  lecture  Mm ;"  "  Wo  would  oppose,  resist,  repel,  such  intrusion^ 
a,  ''To  God,  nothing  is  impossible;"  "Nothing  is  impossible  to  God."  "7b 
stcure  his  election,  it  is  said  that  votes  were  bought ;"  "  I J  is  said  that  votes  were 
bought  to  secure  his  election.'''' 

In  discourse  occurs  frequently  what  is  called  the  rhetorical  pause, — a  slight 


PUNCTUATION. OBSERVATIONS.  349 

suspension  in  the  sense,  requiring  no  point,  but  often  mistaken  for  the  sense 
which  requires  a  point.  "The  love  of  liberty,  is  in  every  breast,"  should  be, 
"The  love  of  liberty  is  in  every  breast."  When  emphasis  or  the  rhetorical 
pause  coincides  with  the  grammatical  sense,  it  may  induce  the  insertion  of  a 
point ;  as,  "  A  sentence  is  compound,  when  it  contains  two  or  more  clauses." 
There  seems  to  be  in  use  a  redundant  and  also  a  sparing  mode  of  punctuating, 
called  dose  punctuation  and  free  punctuation,  of  which  the  difference  is  particu- 
larly obvious  in  the  use  of  the  comma.  The  following  are  extreme  specimens : 
*'  He  then,  with  great  effort,  did,  by  sheer  strength,  move  the  mass  from  the  po- 
sition, it,  at  first,  occupied,  to  one,  at  least  forty  yards  distant,  and,  but  for  im- 
pediments, would,  iiad  time  been  given  him,  have  moved  it,  with  ease,  and 
precision,  to  the  position,  where,  for  the  progress  of  the  work,  it  was  required." 
— Punctuation  made  Plain.  "  A  cool  and  philosophical  observer  would  un- 
doubtedly have  pronounced  that  all  the  evil  arising  from  the  intolerant  laws 
which  Parliament  had  framed  was  not  to  be  compared  to  the  evil  which  would 
be  produced  by  a  transfer  of  the  legislative  power  from  the  Parliament  to  the 
sovereign." — Macaulay.  The  best  mode  is  a  medium  between  the  two ;  but 
they  are  often  improperly  mixed,  especially  by  pointing  parenthetic  parts  on 
one  side  only.  "Go,  and  without  hesitation,  pay  the  sum."  Either  insert  a 
comma  after  and,  or  omit  the  comma  after  hesitation.  ''  The  dog  having  seen 
him,  went  in  pursuit,"  should  be,   "  The  dog,  having  seen  him,  went  in  pursuit." 

"  :  such  is  war,"  can  refer  to  the  rest  of  the  same  sentence  only;  but 
■".  Such  is  war,"  may  refer  to  all  the  discourse  before  it.  "The  pride  of  wealth 
is  contemptible;  the  pride  of  learning  is  pitiable;  the  pride  of  dignity  is  ridicu- 
lous ;  but  the  pride  of  bigotry  is  insupportable."  Here  the  dash  would  have 
been  too  sentimental;  the  comma  would  have  slurred  the  matter  over  too 
lightly ;  the  colon  would  have  suggested  a  different  connection  in  thought ;  the 
period  would  have  been  too  deliberate;  but  the  semicolon  gives  due  distinc- 
tion to  the  parts,  and  the  greatest  energy  to  the  whole  sentence.  Mr.  Wilson, 
:ho\vever,  prefers  ithe  comma.  "My  comrade,  on  the  contrary,  made  himself 
■quite  one  of  the  family;  laughed  and  chatted  with  them."  Here  the  insertion 
•of  and  before  "laughed,"  would  require  the  comma;  the  insertion  of  he,  the 
colon.  ^  The  bill  passed  without  amendment ;  though  it  never  received  the 
royal  assent;"  "The  bill  passed  without  amendment,  though  it  never  received 
ithe  royal  assent."  The  semicolon  rather  gives  "  though"  the  sense  of  however; 
and  the  comma,  the  sense  of  notwithstanding.  "  None  but  the  brave,  none  but 
the  brave,  none  but  the  brave  deserves  the  fair." — Dryden.  Ordinary  repeti- 
tion. "Arm!  arm!  it  is — it  is— the  cannon's  opening  roar!" — Byron.  Sus- 
pense and  emotion.  "Wherever  he  [the  bobolink]  goes,  pop!  pop!  pop  I  the 
■rusty  firelocks  of  the  country  are  cracking  on  every  side." — Irving.  Greater 
emotion.  Observe  how  the  repeated  parts  are  differently  punctuated  as  the 
-emotion  rises.  "  Another  wave  lifts  the  schooner — another  fearful  crash — she 
rolls  over — her  decks  are  rent  asunder — her  crew  are  struggling  in  the  water— 
■all  is  over!" — Harper's  Magazine.  "A  dress  of  blue  silk;  plain,  high  body;  skirt 
of  moderate  length,"  etc. — lb.  The  dasli,  if  inserted  in  the  latter  sentence,  would 
make  it  a  matter  of  wonder  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  a  blue  silk  dress. 

The  dash  and  the  curves  are  generally  used  to  set  off  a  parenthesis  between  a 
.part  and  its  reiteration.  "  They  call  us  angels — (though  I  am  proud  to  say,  no 
man  ever  so  insulted  my  understanding) — angels,  that  they  may  make  us  slaves!" 
—Jerroli.  In  general,  the  punctuation  should  stand  right  when  the  entire  pa- 
renthesis is  omitted.  "  Thou  idol  of  thy  parents— (Hang  the  boy  !  there  goes 
my  ink.)"  And  double  points  should  not  be  used  needlessly.  Curves  and 
'brackets  so  much  break  the  connection  that  they  have  almost  the  force  of  a  point. 
•'Amid,  \i.  e.,  at  mid  or  middle,']  is  from  a  and  mzd" — Goold  Brown.  "Amidst 
[,  i.  e.,  at  midst,]  is  from  a  and  midst— Id.  I  think,  better  thus  :  "Amid  [i.  e., 
■at  mid  or  middd^}  is  from  a  and  mid;''  *  AMiDsr  [i.  e.,  at  midst]  ia  from  a  and 


350  PUNCTUATION. OBSERVATIONS. 

midst."  "  '  The  highest  classes  are  rich  and  haughty'  [but  the  loweM  classes  are 
poor  and  humble]."  "The  most  certain  plan  of  success  (I  have  it  from  a  woman, 
and,  I  believe,  an  excellent  authority,)  is  any  way  to  interest  them.  In  my  own 
case — (I  thought  your  poor  mother  had  a  deal  of  money,  but — well,  never  mind,) 
— I  at  last  atiected  consumption." — Jerrold.  Here  1  should  have  omitted  the 
comma  from  the  latter  curve ;  and  the  dashes  and  curves  together  are  perhaps 
not  both  needed.  The  point  is  often  better  put  after  the  latter  curve  only.  "And 
the  worse  the  case  is  about  my  companions — my  fellow-paupers  (for  I  must  boar 
the  word) — the  greater  are  my  chances  of  finding  something  for  them — some- 
thing which  may  prevent  my  feeling  myself  utterly  useless  in  the  world."  Lord 
Macaulay,  I  believe,  has  never  used  a  parenthesis. 

A  word  is  frequently  set  off  by  the  comma,  or  not  set  off  by  it,  according  as 
it  has  the  sense  of  a  conjunction  or  that  of  an  adverb.  "  You  did  not  see  him, 
ihenf  '' You  did  not  see  him  theiif^  ^'■However,  I  will  not  shrink,  hoioever 
grea,t  the  responsibility  may  be."  "He  gave  the  ideal,  too,  of  truth  and  beauty;" 
"  He  is  too  bad  to  be  sent  there  too."  '''■Therefore  have  1  written  to  him ;"  "  1 
liave,  therefore^  written  to  him."  "*S'o  pleased  at  first,  the  towering  Alps  we 
try  ;"  ">S'o,  pleased  at  first,  the  towering  Alps  we  try."  The  pointing  sometimes 
depends  on  how  smoothly  the  part  flows  with  the  other  words.  "  Perhaps  we 
shall  never  see  him  again."  *'  We  shall  perhaps  never  see  him  again."  "  We 
shall  never,  perhaps,  see  him  again."  Also,  too,  perhaps,  and  therefore,  often  do 
not  require  a  point.  Mere  and  there  are  sometimes  set  off,  when  emphatic  or 
contrasted.  As  well  as  with  a  nominative,  between  another  nominative  and  the 
verb,  is  set  off.  Parts  compared  or  slightly  contrasted,  and  closely  depending  on 
something  after  them,  are  often  not  separated;  as,  "  It  is  a  small  but  thrifty  tree." 
An  intermediate  phrase  beginning  with  if  not,  is  always  set  off.  When  two  or 
more  modifying  parts  are  parenthetic,  the  less  coalescent  are  sot  off  "  And  her 
eyes  on  all  my  motions,  with  a  mute  observance,  hung." — Goold  Brown.  Better  : 
"And  her  eyes,  on  all  my  motions,  with  a  mute  observance  hung."  A  restrictive 
relative  clause  seldom  needs  a  comma  before  it,  even  when  separated  from  its 
antecedent ;  as,  "  He  preaches  sublimely  who  lives  a  righteous  and  pious  Ufe.^' 
"  It  was  the  scarcity  ot  the  peaches  that  made  them  so  dear."  When  that  begins  a 
clause  depending  closely  on  it,  preceding  it,  or  on  a  governing  or  controlling 
verb,  or  on  so  or  siu:h,  the  clause  does  not  require  the  comma.  "  It  is  reported 
that  he  is  coming."  ''I  know  that  he  is  honest."  "  He  does  it  that  you  may  praise 
him."  "  It  was  so  heavy  that  I  could  not  carry  it."  When  such  or  so  begins  the 
previous  clause,  the  latter  is  set  off;  also,  when  the  latter  is  emphatic.  When 
two  connected  phrases,  of  moderate  length,  begin  with  articles,  or  are  bound  to- 
gether by  both — and,  either — or,  neither — nor,  they  seldom  need  the  comma  be- 
tween them.  When  or  connects  adjectives  or  adverbs  that  are  alternative  in 
sense,  they  need  not  be  separated.  "  Answers  that  are  given  in  a  careless,  or  in- 
different manner." —  Wdlson^s  Readers.  Omit  the  comma.  A  noun  quaUfied  or  gov- 
erned by  adjectives  or  verbs  before  it,  is  not  usually  set  off  from  them,  "  It  was  a 
bright,  lovely  day."  "He  soils,  tears,  and  loses  his  books;  "So,  adverbs,  when 
followed  by  what  they  modify.  '•  We  are  tearfully,  wonderfully  made."  Also,  the 
antecedents  of  adjuncts;  as,  "The  leaves,  blossoms,  and  roots  of  the  tree." 
But  when  the  connecting  word  is  omitted  before  an  adjunct  or  object,  the  com- 
ma is  inserted ;  as,  "  He  soils,  tears,  loses,  his  books."  "  The  leaves,  blossom.s, 
roots,  of  the  tree."  But  adjectives  like  the  following,  and  separated  nominatives, 
should  bo  set  olf.  "  The  former  are  called  voluntary,  and  the  latter  involuntary 
muscles." —  Wdlson^s  Readers.  "  Industry,  honesty,  and  temperance  are  essential 
to  happiness." — John  Wilson.  Here  a  comma  should  be  placed  after  "involun- 
tary," and  also  one  after  "  temperance."  The  punctuation  of  the  former  sentence 
is  so  common  an  error,  and  that  of  the  latter  is  so  well  authorized,  that  we  shall 
quote  some  strong  authority  against  both  : — 

"  1  perceive  one  mistake  in  your  manner  of  pointing.     When  there  are  sev- 


PUNCTUATION. OBSERVATIONS. MISCELLANEOUS    MARKS.       351 

eral  nouns  of  th  e  nominative  case  to  one  verb,  you  admit  no  comma  after  the 
la.st  of  them  previous  to  the  verb.  Or  when  there  are  several  distinct  short 
members  of  the  sentence  verging  into  one  concluding  one,  you  admit  no  stop 
between  the  last  of  them  and  this  concluding  one.  In  this,  I  am  persuaded  you 
are  wrong,  according  to  the  dictates  of  reason,  as  well  as  the  highest  authority. 
Of  the  authority  I  am  quite  certain.  A  passage  or  two  where  you  have  intro- 
duced this  correction,  will  tell  what  I  mean.  'A  new  train  of  ideas,  presenting 
the  possible,  and  magnifying  the  certain,  difficulties  of  the  situation.'  '  Though 
a  man  is  obedient,  and  probably  will  be  obedient,  to  habit,'  &c.  *  They  are 
mistaken  if  they  imagine  that  the  influences  which  guide,  or  the  moral  prin- 
ciples which  impel,  this  self-applauding  progress,'  &c.  Now,  I  feel  most  certain 
that  the  comma  ought  to  remain  in  all  such  cases,  and  that  the  contrary  manner 
is  a  vulgar  mode  only  of  pointing.  The  authority  of  Gibbon  is  decisive,  and  he 
invariably  points,  in  such  instances,  as  I  have  shown." — Foster's  Life  and  Cor- 
respondence. 

Repeated  parts  are  not  usually  set  off  when  they  govern  an  objective  or 
qualify  something  immediately  after  them.  The  comma  is  often  improperly 
omitted  before  and^  when  this  connects  the  last  two  terms  of  a  series ;  as,  "A,  B 
and  Co."  The  Company  does  not  belong  more  to  B  than  to  A ;  therefore  the 
comma  should  be  inserted ;  as,  "A,  B,  and  Co."  The  com.ma  is,  however,  generally 
omitted  when  the  short  and  (&)  is  used.  "  John,  James  and  "William  are  com- 
ing," implies  that  I  am  telling  John  what  the  other  two  boys  are  doing.  Insert 
the  comma,  and  the  sense  is  clear.  Mr.  Wilson  omits  the  comma  when  and  or 
nor  is  inserted  after  each  term.  It  is  generally  best  to  insert  the  comma  ;  as, 
"The  health,  and  streng-th,  and  freshness,  and  sweet  sleep  of  youth,  are  yours." 
— R.  G.  Parker.  The  comma,  however,  may  be  so  used  elsewhere  as  to  exclude 
the  use  of  it  in  the  series.  "  The  voyages  of  Grosnold  and  Smith  and  Hudson, 
the  enterprise  of  Raleigh  and  Delaware  and  G-orges,"  etc. — Bancroft.  "  Divid- 
ing and  gliding  and  sliding,  and  falling  and  brawling  and  sprawling, "  etc. — 
Southey.  Indeed,  the  comma  is  sometimes  excluded  within,  because  a  greater 
point  can  not  be  admitted  at  the  end.  In  the  United  States  the  comma  is  usu- 
ally omitted  between  the  number  and  the  name  of  a  street ;  as,  "  No.  75  Spruce 
Street."  The  sense,  however,  requires  it ;  though  when  "  No."  is  omitted,  the  fig- 
ures may  perhaps  be  conceived  as  an  adjective,  like  upper,  for  instance,  in  the 
phrase,  "on  the  upper  Mississippi,"  which  shows  on  what  part,  and  requires  no  com- 
ma. In  the  United  States,  the  comma  is  generally  not  inserted  between  the  word 
price  and  the  number,  tho\igh  the  strict  sense  requires  it;  as,  "  Price  $5."  Dr.  Bul- 
lions writes,  "  I,  Paul,  have  written  it."  This  may  imply  that  Paul  is  addressed, 
and  should  therefore  be,  "  I  Paul  have  written  it."  Mr.  Butler  writes,  "  Words 
ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change,"  etc.  This  implies  that  the  words 
are  preceded  by  a  consonant,  and  should  therefore  be,  "  Words  ending  in  y 
preceded  by  a  consonant,  change,"  etc.  Mr.  Goold  Brown  writes,  "  To  carve 
for  others,  is,  to  starve  yourself."  "  So  that  the  term,  language,  now  signifies,  any 
series,^^  etc.  All  these  commas  are  superfluous  or  wrong.  Mr.  Brown  frequently 
punctuates  too  closely,  and  sometimes  contradicts  himself.  His  system  is  in- 
adequate; Dr.  Maudeville's  is,  radically,  partly  sound  and  partly  unsomid ;  Mr. 
Wilson's  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  best  extant ;  though  it  is  both  deficient  and  too 
volummous. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MARKS. 

1.  Marks  of  Omission. 

Blank  space,  Ditto  (  "  "  or  '  '  ),    Dots         ( ), 

Apostrophe     (  '  ),     Long  dash     ( ), 

Caret  (  * ).     Stars  f  *  *  *  *  *).       Hyphens  ( ), 


8S2  PUNCTUATION. MISCELLANEOUS    MARKS. 

Ex. —  "  Why  do  you  repeat 

'  My  words,  as  if  you  feared  to  trust  your  own  I"       Blank  space,  at  tho 

bcgiuning  or  the  end  of  a  line  of  poetry,  best  shows  omission. 
"  Columbus  1  'tis  day,  and  the  darkness  is  o'er!" 
"  What  o'clock  ?"        "  Daniel  O'Connel."        "  M'c  Donald."        "  McDonald." 
(Contractions.) 

f  ie  the  evil 

"  SufAiCxUt  for  the  day  isAthereof"       (Accidental  omission.) 

"  10  lbs.  of  coffee,  @  10  cts.  per  pound, $1.00. 

12  "     "   sugar,  "   8^  "      "         "         1.00. 

"  We  have  come  into  the  den  of  a " 


"  But  he  married yet  if  he  had  married " 

"  And  Mrs.  g  *  *  *  *  ?  is  she  as  beautiful  as  ever  ?" 

"  *D — n  the  vagabond !'  said  he,  in  such  a  tone  that  I  positively  startled." 

"  Poor  Mrs.  C (why  should  I  not 

Declare  her  name  ? — her  name  was  Cross) — 
Was  one  of  those  '  the  common  lot' 
Had  left  to  mourn  no  '  common  loss.'  " — Hood. 
'*  The  next  shall  tell  thee,  bitterly  shall  tell, 
Thoughts  that       ***** 
******** 
Thoughts  that — could  patience  hold — 'twere  better  far. 
To  leave  still  hid  and  burning  where  they  are." — T.  Moore :  Fudge 

[^Family. 


"No. 


I  promise  to  pay  to ,  or  bearer, dollars,"  etc. 

Mr.  Wilson  seems  to  recommend  the  dash  for  omitted  letters,  the  periods  for 
omitted  words,  and  the  stars  for  omitted  sentences.  But  the  distinction  is  not 
always  regarded. 

2.  Marks  of  Pronunciation  or  Utterance. 

Acute  (  '  )j     Diaeresis       (••)>      Webster's  Notation, 

Accents ;  -^  Grave  (     ),     Hyphen        (  -  ),     (See  his  Dictionary,) 

Circumflex     (  ^  ),     Separatrix  (  |  ),      Worcester's  Notation, 
Macron     (  -  ),        Cedilla  (under  9=s),     (See  his  Dictionary.) 
Breve        (>-'),       Tilde      (over  n=ny), 

Ex.—"  To  conflict,  a  conflict."     "  Will  you  w4lk,  or  ride  ?" 

"  Madam,  you  have  my  father  much  offended."  (Stress,  inflection,  modula- 
tion, etc.) 

"Machine,  Miongo,  Montreal,  f§te,  la."     (Long  sound.) 

"  Ye  shepherds,  so  cheerful  and  gay." — Fowler. 

"Holy,  I  holy,  |  holy,  |  all  the  |  saints  a  |  dore  thee." — Broion.  (Poetic  ac- 
cents and  feet.) 

"  G16-ri-ous,  soul-dls-eased,  im-pru-dent."       (Quantity.) 

"And  hearken  to  the  bird's  love-learned  .song — love-learned  song."  "  Reap- 
pear, re-appear;  coordinate,  co-ordinate;  aerial,  Menelaus,  Antinoiis,  Danae," 
These  marks  show  that  a  suppressed  syllable  must  be  pronounced,  or  they 
prevent  two  syllables  from  being  improperly  made  one.  The  hyphen  is  often 
preferred  when  the  tirst  part  is  a  prefix,  or  when  each  of  the  parts  is  significant. 

"  Fagade,  ghaise,  gargon,  (generally  placed  before  a  or  o,)  seiior."  "  Where 
the  troop  of  Mifton  [Minyun]  wheels." 


PUNCTUATION. — MISCELLANEOUS   MARKS.  353 

3.  Marks  of  Reference, 

ih  (  *  ),  1st  reference  ;  Paragraph  (  IT  )  ; 
Dagger^  or  obelisk  (  t  ),  2d       "  Then  doubled  (**,  ft,  etc.)  ; 

Double  dagger,  or  diesis  (  J  )  ;  Then  trebled  (***,  fft,  etc.)  ; 

Section  (  §  )  ;  Also  superiors — letters  or  figures  (■,  *•, 

Parallels  (  1|  )  ;  %  S  ',  ')• 

These  marks  are  placed,  in  the  order  we  have  shown,  over  words  from 
which  reference  is  made,  and  also  at  the  head  of  those,  in  the  margin,  to 
which  the  reference  is  made. 

4.  Marks  Directing  Attention. 

The  index,  or  hand  (  H^^  ),  directs  special  attention  to  something. 
Ex. — "  ^^  All  orders  by  mail  must  be  accorapanied  hj  the  cash." 

The  asierism,  or  three  stars  (***),  precedes  a  note  that  has  a  general 
reference. 

Ex. — "  *  *  *  The  Teacher  should  require  his  pupils  to  spell  and  define  the 
most  important  words  in  every  lesson  that  is  read." 

n,i     7         /  3  ^  unites  two  or  more  parts,  and  generally  refers  them  in 
^  \    *  common  to  something  else.      It  should  open  toward 
the  more  numerous  parts. 

"  Not  that  my  verse  should  blemish  all  the  fair  ; 
Yet  some  are  bad, — "tis  wisdom  to  beware, 

And  better  to  avoid  the  bait,  than  struggle  in  the  snare,"  )  — Dryden. 
(A  triplet  introduced  arnoug  couplets.) 

The  paragraph  (  1 )  usually  marks  the  longer  divisions  of  a  large  divi- 
sion :  it  shows  where  something  new  begins. 

The  section  (  §  )  usually  marks  the  smaller  divisions  of  a  long  divisioa 

Both  these  marks  are  conveniently  used  with  numbers,  to  abridge 
references. 

Ex. — "^^T.  Pure  Verbs.     Second  Aoristsy — Crosby. 

"  §  219.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,"  Qic.—Id. 

Leaders  ( )  lead  the  eye  from  one  part  to  another  over  a 

blank  space. 

Page 

Ex.—"  Naples, 63 

Pompeii — Hercnlaneum, 65."    (Index.) 

" George is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name,"  etc. 

*^Has  been  rewarded is  a  verb,"  etc. 

5.  Marks  Used  in  Correcting  Proof-Sheets. 

Peter  Schoeffer  is  said  to  be  the  person  who  Caps. 

invented   cast  metal  types,  having   learned 

(^V  the  art -ef  of  cM«m^  the  letters  fryin  the  Got-  o 

tembergs,  he  is  also  sup/osed  to  have  been  "y 

^  the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  jplatea     The  - 1 


.[-. 


S64  MARKiS    USED    IN    CORRECTING    PROOF-SHEETS. 

following  testimony  is  preseveJ  in  the  family,     r 
^\   by    Jo.    Fred.    Faustus    of   Ascheflenburg:         it 
^    .Peter  Schoeffer  of  Gernsheim,  perceiving  his    S.cap-t. 
\/  master   Fausta    design,  and   being   himself 
tr.  (desiroua\ ardently)  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the   good   providence  of  God)   the 
+  pethod  of  cutting  (incidondl)  the  characters       stel. 

in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
,1    singly  cast /instcdd  of  bieng   cut.     He  pri-        eil 
y^  vately  CM<  maf fvcesj  for  the  whole  alphabet  :)A 
Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  contrivance 
/^j^at  he  promised  Jpeter  to  give  him^is  only       w.f 
/jgUghter  Christina  in  maTrmgc,  a  promise     ^(aL 
/^jj^ich  he  soon  after  perfo^lfied^  iVb  7. 

as       (But  there  were  oTany  difficulties  at  first 
Horn,  with  these  lettcr^aa  there  had  be  en  before      ^^1 


Ital.  with  woofl;?ff  ones,  the  metal  being  by  mixing     outa.c- 
"TT  2        1  " 

tr.  the  a^bstance  with  metal  which  hardened  itJ     O 


(and  when  he  showed  his  master  the  letters 
cast  from  these  matrices. 


^ 


EXPLANATIONS. 

dele — take  out  the  superfluous  word  "of." 

0)     turn  the  reversed  letter  "p." 

^    insert  a  space  between  "  who"  and  "  engraved.'* 

*^    less  space  between  the  words. 

IF     make  a  new  paragraph. 

tr.     transpose  the  words  "  desirous"  and  "  ardently." 

ttet.  let  incidendi  (accidentally  erased)  remain. 

vj.f.  "  wrong  fount"  type  to  be  changed. 

out  8.0.  "  out,  see  copy."    The  words  omitted  being  too 
numerous  for  the  margin,  the  compositor  is 
referred  to  the  original  copy  for  them. 
The  oth(!r  marks  are  self-explanatory. 


'D  <5h^b<: 


IVI5159S8 


